The technical terms, briefly explained

Nach dem bekannten „Hamburger Modell“ der Kommunikationspsychologie zeichnet sich ein verständlicher Text durch folgende Kriterien aus:• Einfachheit (Gegenteil: Kompliziertheit): Kurze, präzise Sätze und geläufige Begriffe. Fachbegriffe (Terminologie) sind erlaubt, müssen aber bei der ersten Verwendung klar definiert werden.• Gliederung & Ordnung (Unübersichtlichkeit): Ein klarer, logischer roter Faden. Durch Absätze, Zwischenüberschriften und Aufzählungen wird der Text optisch und inhaltlich strukturiert.• Kürze & Prägnanz (Gegenteil: Weitschweifigkeit): Auf den Punkt kommen. Füllwörter, Redundanzen und unnötig verschachtelte Sätze (Schachtelsätze) sind zu vermeiden.• Zusätzliche Stimulanz (Gegenteil: keine anregenden Zusätze): Tabellen, Grafiken, Beispiele oder Analogien, die das Verständnis erleichtern und den Text auflockern.

see Quote adaptions

see Quote abbreviations

see Quote with Error

Abductive codes emerge through a constant back-and-forth between theory and data. Existing concepts are adapted to the material and expanded through new data-based findings.

An abstract is a concise, self-contained summary of an academic work (e.g. a Bachelor’s or Master’s thesis or a research article). It serves as a quick basis for readers to decide whether reading the full text is relevant to them. A well-structured abstract is usually half a page long (approx. 150 to 250 words) and answers four key questions in a clear, logical order: introduction and problem statement, methodology, results & conclusion or outlook.

In what way can what is observed be evaluated or interpreted? The aim is therefore to detach oneself from the concrete setting or from the “historical uniqueness” of an event.

Academic libraries for research and teaching are aimed at students, researchers, and those with a scientific interest. The task of university and college libraries is to provide the respective faculties with specialized literature. State and regional libraries, on the other hand, collect the literature of a specific federal state or country and serve as archives. Historically, there are also state libraries whose respective states no longer have legal status, e.g., the Baden State Library, the Württemberg State Library, or the Oldenburg State Library.

In science, academic merit describes the content quality and reliability of a source. Along with citability (formal accessibility and publication), it is the second main criterion that must be met to use a source in scientific papers.

Academic search engines are specialized research tools that, unlike Google or Bing, only search verified, citable sources. They filter out unreliable websites and are ideal for finding scholarly articles, books, preprints, and dissertations for term papers or theses. Everyday internet search engines only index a fraction of the academic literature because much content resides in so-called dynamic databases, which are not accessible to standard crawlers. Academic search engines circumvent this problem, thus guaranteeing significantly higher quality, up-to-date-ness, and reproducibility for your academic work.

Accuracy requires that data subjects are informed about which personal data is stored and that incorrect data is corrected upon request.

Acknowledgments cite support, expert assistance, funding, or institutional contributions. Particularly in the context of journals, information regarding funding, conflicts of interest, or ethical approvals often falls into this category or among related mandatory disclosures.

See “yes-saying” data.

In science, an acronym is a shortened word formed from the initial letters or syllables of several words and pronounced as a single word or character by character. It serves to keep complex technical terms, institutions, or research projects precise, readable, and communicable.

In the humanities, this refers to the reworking or transfer of a subject or work into another medium or genre, for example the film adaptation of a novel. In general, it means the modified transfer of information. If a representation has been adapted or translated, this must be indicated. The addition “based on” is mandatory, for example: “Based on [author] [year], p. [page]” or “Own representation based on [author]”.

Tables, charts, examples, or analogies that facilitate understanding and break up the text.

Adjacency pairs are, in linguistics and sociology, especially in conversation analysis, the smallest sequential basic unit of dialogic exchange. They consist of two successive contributions by different speakers, with the first part creating a specific expectation for the second.

In science, administration objectivity describes the extent to which the results of a study or survey are completely independent of the person conducting it. It is a key criterion of scientific quality.

AI (Artificial Intelligence) is a subfield of computer science that aims to develop machines and computer programs so that they can independently solve tasks that normally require human intelligence (e.g., logical reasoning, learning, understanding languages, or making decisions). It is used to automate processes, manage complexity, and gain insights from huge amounts of data that would be virtually impossible for humans to process. In academic work, it remains crucial that the argumentation, the research, and the expert evaluation come from you. AI may therefore assist, but not take over. Many universities emphasize in their guidelines: AI is a tool, not a co-author.

All caps is the typographical term for capital letters. The term comes from the Latin word versus (line), as sentence beginnings were formerly emphasized. In typography, it is considered bad form to write entire sentences or paragraphs entirely in all caps. Words lose their characteristic form, making the text significantly harder and slower to read. In digital communication (e.g., in chats), writing in all caps is also often perceived as impolite, as it is interpreted as "shouting."

See type 1 error.

The alternative hypothesis, also called H₁, is the scientific conjecture that a real effect, relationship or difference between groups does exist. It is the opposite of the null hypothesis (H₀), which states that no effect or difference exists.

An analysis is the systematic breaking down of a complex whole into its individual parts. One does not merely look at the ‘pile’, but examines how the individual parts are connected. To put it in everyday terms, one could speak of methodical ‘picking apart’. In contrast to analysis, research is the entire systematic process of gaining new insights, whilst analysis is a specific sub-step in which information is methodically broken down and examined. One can imagine it like this: research is the entire construction project of a house, and analysis is the precise checking and fitting of the individual building blocks.

An "analysis clause" is not a standard legal or methodological term in academia. The term is ambiguous; depending on the context, it describes either a statistical evaluation strategy or a legal instrument. In empirical research, economics, or statistics, analysis is linked to specific conditions or clauses. An analysis clause can also refer to a requirement—precisely defined in advance by a researcher, institution, or university—that governs a statistical test, methodology, or partnership. As a legal instrument, analysis clauses are statutory provisions that allow for deviations from existing rules in order to scientifically test new technologies, services, or innovative approaches (often within so-called "real-world laboratories" or regulatory sandboxes).

Analysis objectivity is one of the key criteria of scientific quality. It describes the degree to which the analysis of collected data is independent of the person performing the analysis. This means that regardless of which scientist analyses the raw data, the result should always be identical.

Varianzanalyse análisis de varianza

The analysis section presents the data collected and places them in a scientific framework. It is the core of the work and shows whether the hypothesis was confirmed or refuted. These two parts are often written in separate chapters to clearly distinguish facts from interpretation. Traditionally, it is divided into results and discussion. The analysis part, including results and discussion together with the methodology, usually accounts for 40 to 60 per cent of the work. It is generally not possible to define an exact division of each part, as this depends heavily on the chosen methodology.

Analytical codes, also called interpretative codes, go beyond mere description and assign a deeper meaning, a motive or a theoretical explanatory mechanism to the text.

An anamnesis, as an interview format, refers to the structured and systematic collection of a person’s background and current situation in order to understand problems, life circumstances or disorders. It serves primarily as an initial diagnostic or research interview, in which one moves from open questions to more specific details. It is based on the standardised interview.

Anonymization is the process of altering or removing personal data in such a way that the data subject can no longer be identified. The link to the individual is irrevocably removed, meaning the GDPR no longer applies to this data.

ANOVA, short for Analysis of Variance, is a statistical procedure used to check whether the means of three or more groups differ significantly from one another. Rather than comparing several groups separately, ANOVA analyses all groups in a single test. This avoids artificially increasing the probability of error when many comparisons are made.

Antiqua is the general term for the classical typefaces of the Latin alphabet that historically derive from Roman capitals. They are the absolute standard for body text in books, newspapers, and on the web, and are characterised by very high legibility.

The APA citation style, 7th edition, is a set of rules from the American Psychological Association, which is regularly updated, and is widely used. Like the Harvard style, it is an author-date system. The APA style is used especially in the social sciences. It is based on brief in-text citations (author, year) and a full reference list at the end. Indirect quotations or paraphrases require only author and year, for example Müller, 2020; direct quotations also require the page number, for example Müller, 2020, p. 15. In indirect quotations, the author’s name may appear in the text and the quotation then consists only of the year, for example Müller (2020) states…. Here too, if there are two authors, both are named, for example Müller and Schmidt, 2020; from three onwards, the name of the first author is followed by et al.. The abbreviations f. or ff. for following pages are avoided; instead, exact page ranges are used, for example pp. 15–18. Secondary citations should be avoided. If necessary, only the source actually read is included in the reference list.

see Article Processing Charge (APC)

see diary study.

Back-translation is not a reliable formula. A grammatically incorrect or completely unnatural text in the target language can, through literal back-translation, suddenly read like the perfect original, even though the actual target text is flawed. This creates apparent accuracy.

see apples and oranges fallacy.

The apples-and-oranges fallacy describes the logical error of comparing two fundamentally different things. Since the objects being compared do not share common criteria, the comparison does not lead to any useful or objective result.

In science, applicability (also referred to as application orientation) denotes the extent to which theoretical insights, methods, or models can be utilized to solve practical problems or address real-world societal and economic challenges.

see Applicability

Applied research is the systematic investigation of scientific methods for solving concrete problems in practice. Its goal is to use existing theoretical knowledge in a targeted manner to develop new products, processes, or services.

A scientific argument is a logically structured, verifiable line of reasoning. It serves to support a claim (thesis) using premises (prerequisites, facts) in order to gain new insights or convince the academic community of a new theory. Unlike everyday opinions, a scientific argument must always be objective, rational, and substantiated.

classic average value

Art is a complex and changing concept that essentially refers to any form of conscious human creation pursued with aesthetic, emotional, or communicative intent. It may serve as a medium for social criticism, as an expression of a worldview, or as a purely aesthetic object.

see Article Processing Charge (APC)

An Article Processing Charge (APC)—also known as an article or publication fee—is a fee charged by publishers to researchers or their institutions to enable the publication of a scholarly article via open access.

In science, the term "artifact" (something artificially created) has two completely different primary meanings, depending on whether one is working in the humanities or the natural sciences. It describes either an object created by human hands (e.g., in archaeology) or an artificial, erroneous effect in scientific measurements (e.g., in medicine). In archaeology, anthropology, and history, an artifact is a material object that has been artificially produced or modified. In empirical research, medicine, and diagnostics, an artifact refers to a distortion or falsification of data, images, or measurement results. The phenomenon is artificially generated—by humans, the measuring instrument, or the examination method—and does not exist in nature.

see AI

Artificial selection is rarely used in survey research and is more commonly used in experiments. In general, it refers to the deliberate manipulation or composition of an experimental group according to extreme, often unnatural characteristics. The aim is not to represent the real world, but to test something under specific conditions. An example would be dividing participants into an experimental group and a control group.

see Peer review

An associative interview is a qualitative, indirect interviewing technique in which participants spontaneously and without guidance express memory content, feelings or unconscious motives linked to a specific stimulus. Its aim is to reveal mental connections, that is, associations, beyond rational and socially desirable answers. It is often based on a narrative interview.

see opinion interview.

In science, authenticity refers to the genuineness, credibility, and reliability of scientific findings, sources, and methods. It is a key quality criterion that ensures research results are actually based on real data and meet scientific standards.

Autonomy does not mean reinventing the wheel. Rather, it means using existing knowledge intelligently and structuring it in such a way as to create an original text. This is precisely what distinguishes scholarly work: the ability not only to reproduce but also to analyse and connect.

In axial coding, the codes found in open coding are systematically linked to one another, for example according to causes, context, actions and consequences.

A bar chart or column chart is a graphical representation used to illustrate frequencies, quantities or comparisons between different categories, such as products, countries or months, by means of rectangles. The length or height of each rectangle is proportional to the value shown.

BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's largest search engines, specializing in academic web documents. It is operated by Bielefeld University Library.

Basic research is the open-ended, curiosity-driven search for new insights, functions, and laws, without a direct goal of practical application. It expands human knowledge about nature, technology, and society and forms the long-term foundation for innovations and applications in medicine, technology, and science.

Erklärung

Behaviour coding means that observers systematically record whether the interviewer and respondents have problems with certain questions, for example frequent clarification requests or hesitation.

Behaviour coding means that observers systematically record whether the interviewer and respondents have problems with certain questions, for example frequent clarification requests or hesitation.

A behavioural analysis as an interview format, also called a behavioural diagnostic or behaviour-based interview, is a structured scientific interview method. Rather than asking about abstract attitudes, it aims to reconstruct concrete past behaviours and experiences in specific situations. It is used to generate hypotheses and identify maintaining conditions. It is often based on the job interview.

Behavioural questions are special interview questions used in job interviews. Rather than asking about general strengths, weaknesses or hypothetical scenarios, recruiters ask you to describe concrete situations from the past. The aim is to infer future behaviour and soft skills from your actual actions. To answer these questions in a structured and convincing way, the STAR method is best used.

Belief is therefore a purely subjective holding of a view as true. As soon as it becomes verifiable and can be rationally justified (objectified), belief can become knowledge.

siehe Deskriptive Kodes

siehe deskriptive Statistik

see Type 2 error.

The term "bias" refers to partiality, distortion, or prejudice. It describes a human or systemic tendency to unconsciously distort information, perceptions, or judgments and steer them in a specific direction. In science and statistics, it refers to systematic errors in data collection or studies that lead to incorrect or distorted results.

Bibliographies list all the scholarly literature used, for example books, specialist journals, or studies. It is the systematic list at the end of an academic work that fully records all sources used, including books, articles, websites, and interviews. It serves to prevent plagiarism and to allow readers to verify the information used.

see BASE

A biographical interview is a qualitative data collection method in social research. The interviewee is asked to speak freely and in detail about their life. The aim is to reconstruct subjective experiences, structures of meaning and coping strategies rather than simply answering standardised questions. It is often based on a narrative interview.

A bivariate analysis is a statistical procedure that examines the relationship, correlation or influence between exactly two variables. The aim is to determine whether and how a change in the first variable affects the second, or whether both vary together. Bivariate data are often presented visually to spot trends at a glance. Scatter plots and bar or column charts are used for this purpose.

See bivariate analysis.

In word processing, bold is the English term for bold type (font weight). It serves to visually emphasize certain words, sentences, or paragraphs and to make important information easier for the reader to find.

In word processing, bold is the English term for bold type (font weight). It serves to visually emphasize certain words, sentences, or paragraphs and to make important information easier for the reader to find.

The bottom, usually largest, unprinted margin.

see Quote within a quote

In science, brainstorming refers to a creativity and problem-solving method that serves the uncensored collection of ideas, research questions, and associations. It is usually used at the beginning of a research project, for hypothesis generation, or in experimental design.

In science, brainstorming is a qualitative creativity and data collection method that, within the group interview, serves to generate spontaneous ideas, hypotheses or possible solutions to a specific research problem. Unlike standardised surveys, it is based on free interaction and association within the group.

In science, brainwriting is a structured creativity technique for the systematic generation of ideas or problem-solving. Unlike classic brainstorming, ideas are not shouted out verbally, but written down, usually silently and independently.

Getting straight to the point. Filler words, redundancies, and unnecessarily convoluted sentences (nested clauses) should be avoided.

see Short reports

The Bundesanzeiger Publishing House is not a scholarly academic publisher, but the official publication and announcements organ of the Federal Republic of Germany. It publishes laws, the commercial register, and legal specialist literature, and is relevant to academia mainly as a primary source for legislation and company data.

In legal scholarship, a by-law is a legal norm issued by a legal person to regulate its own affairs within the scope of its autonomy. Depending on the branch of law, a distinction is made between public law, for example municipalities, and civil law, for example associations.

see Conversation analysis.

see Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing

software for qualitative data analysis

see Court judgment

see Court judgment

A case report is the more concise and focused form of the case study. It usually describes a single case, often from medicine or clinical practice, with the aim of documenting an unusual observation, a rare course, a new side effect or a special intervention. Case reports are often the concentrated miniature form of the case study: less theoretical framework, less methodological breadth, but very direct documentation of an exceptional case.

siehe Fallbericht (Journalartikel)

Case series present multiple related cases, usually in clinical or practice-oriented fields. As a special form, they fall between a case report and a broader empirical study.

A case study is a detailed investigation of a specific individual case, for example a person, a company or an event, in its real context. It serves to understand complex matters, apply theoretical concepts or develop practical solutions. Usually, case studies are conducted over longer periods, that is, longitudinally. They often involve multiple methods or mixed-methods approaches. The advantages of a case study are that, because of its many data collection methods, it provides a great deal of detailed information about a person or persons. It is also often an ethical way to investigate sensitive aspects that would not be ethically feasible with other methods, such as experiments, for example researching the effects of abuse. Its weaknesses lie in its limited validity. Case studies are conducted with small groups or individuals, which cannot always be easily transferred to the general population. They therefore have limited representativeness. There is also a risk of bias on the part of the researcher, that is, interviewer bias. Because of the long and close collaboration and the small group, the researcher may develop a close emotional relationship, which in turn can distort the analysis of the data.

A case study is a detailed investigation of a specific individual case, for example a person, a company or an event, in its real context. It serves to understand complex matters, apply theoretical concepts or develop practical solutions. Usually, case studies are conducted over longer periods, that is, longitudinally. They often involve multiple methods or mixed-methods approaches. The advantages of a case study are that, because of its many data collection methods, it provides a great deal of detailed information about a person or persons. It is also often an ethical way to investigate sensitive aspects that would not be ethically feasible with other methods, such as experiments, for example researching the effects of abuse. Its weaknesses lie in its limited validity. Case studies are conducted with small groups or individuals, which cannot always be easily transferred to the general population. They therefore have limited representativeness. There is also a risk of bias on the part of the researcher, that is, interviewer bias. Because of the long and close collaboration and the small group, the researcher may develop a close emotional relationship, which in turn can distort the analysis of the data.

A case study is a scientific article that systematically examines and describes in detail a specific individual case or a small number of closely related cases. Unlike the short report or the original research article, the focus here is not on the large sample, but rather on the depth of the analysis of a clearly defined case. Case studies can be found in many disciplines, such as medicine, psychology, education, social work, economics or law. They are often particularly valuable in the humanities and social sciences because they make complex connections visible in a real context.

siehe Fallstudien (Journalartikel)

Categorization refers to the division of things, information, or concepts into specific groups (categories). This is done based on common characteristics, properties, or relationships. The goal is to reduce complexity, create structures, and facilitate orientation or analysis. Related terms include classification, ordering, systematization, and grouping.

In science, a category is a basic concept or class used to organise and structure phenomena, data or objects according to certain shared characteristics. It provides the theoretical framework that makes knowledge understandable and comparable.

see Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing

see explanatory questions.

Causality (cause-and-effect relationship) refers to the lawful connection between a cause and its resulting effect. The principle "If A happens, B follows" forms the basis for understanding cause and effect.

see Causality

Central tendency bias is a systematic measurement error in which respondents or raters prefer middle response categories on multi-point scales and avoid extreme values, for example “strongly agree” or “strongly disagree”. It reduces variance and distorts research results.

The abbreviation cf. stands for "compare" and is placed before a source citation in academic writing to indicate an indirect quotation (a paraphrase). It signals to the reader that the preceding content was paraphrased, but not taken verbatim, from the cited source.

see Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

A change of perspective is the methodological or conceptual shift in viewpoint. It is essential for scientific originality, as it helps to break down established thought patterns, formulate new research questions, and develop innovative solutions for existing problems.

see socio-demographic questions.

In science, cherry-picking refers to the selective and improper choice of data, evidence, or studies. Only results that support one's own theory are presented, while contradictory facts are deliberately ignored or omitted.

In science, cherry-picking refers to the selective and improper choice of data, evidence, or studies. Only results that support one's own theory are presented, while contradictory facts are deliberately ignored or omitted.

The Chicago citation style, based on the Chicago Manual of Style, offers two systems: footnotes with bibliography, common in the humanities, or an author-date system, common in the social sciences. References are given either by superscript numbers and footnotes or by parentheses in the text (author, year, page). A detailed reference list is mandatory. When citing by footnotes, these are usually placed in the text after the punctuation mark, full stop or comma. The first mention of a source must give the full reference, which becomes a shortened form on later mention. When citing in the text, only short references are used, and these come before the punctuation mark. Unlike APA, ff. is used when citing more than two pages.

see Circular reasoning

see Circular reasoning

A circular argument (also called circular proof or circularity fallacy) is a logical fallacy in which the conclusion is already included as a premise in the proof. Instead of proving something new, the statement itself is used as justification.

see Citing

Citation techniques are, in essence, like signposts in a huge amusement park of knowledge. They show the reader where to find the original information. Depending on which route you choose, these signposts are placed in very different locations. There are three classic routes, which differ in where the source appears in the document.

Citation styles are used primarily in academic work to identify borrowed ideas, ensure that one’s own argument can be traced, and avoid plagiarism. They are a fixed set of rules that enable a consistent and precise reference format. Citation styles acknowledge the intellectual work of other authors and, through their uniform style, provide clarity and professionalism in a piece of work. There are several established citation styles in academic writing, which differ mainly in the placement of the source reference in the text or in footnotes. The most common are the German style (footnotes), APA, Harvard (author-date), and numerical systems such as IEEE. The choice often depends on the discipline or is prescribed by the university or journal. It is essential to use the chosen style consistently throughout the entire work.

Citeability describes the formal and technical suitability of a source for use in a scientific paper. A source is citable if it is publicly accessible, clearly identifiable, and permanently retrievable. This ensures that third parties can verify the original statements at any time.

The abbreviation "cited in" (or "cited in") indicates a secondary quotation. This is the case when you do not find a statement or an original quotation from an author in the original work itself but in the publication of another author

The abbreviation "cited in" (or "cited in") indicates a secondary quotation. This is the case when you do not find a statement or an original quotation from an author in the original work itself but in the publication of another author

CiteSeerX is a free, open-access search engine and digital library for academic publications. Its primary focus is on computer science and information science.

Citing involves using statements, ideas, or text passages from other sources in one's own writing while acknowledging the original source. This practice respects intellectual property and makes the origin of specific information transparent.

see Categorization

The assignment of characteristics and symbols to specific classes of events or features.

In science, a clear description is achieved through precision, structure, and an objective tone. The goal is to present complex content as simply and directly as possible without sacrificing scientific accuracy. The most important techniques involve linguistic precision and style, structure and logic, clarity of content, the writing process, and the solicitation of feedback.

see anamnesis.

A closed question is a question whose possible answers are already predefined or allow only a very limited choice, such as yes or no. The respondent must make a clear selection from the given options. They are quick to answer, easy to evaluate and provide precisely measurable quantitative data. However, they leave no room for personal thoughts, explanations or detailed opinions. Closed questions include single-choice, dichotomous, multiple-choice and scale questions.

Closed surveys, by contrast, are characterised by a strict order of questions and most answers. Quantitative surveys are usually closed surveys.

data groups based on similarities

data groups based on similarities

Cluster analysis is a statistical and data mining procedure. It is used to examine large volumes of data and classify objects into groups, called clusters, according to their similarities. The main aim is to group the data so that elements within a cluster are as similar as possible, while the different clusters differ from one another as much as possible. The method is often used in unsupervised learning, since before the analysis one usually does not know what structures or how many groups are hidden in the data

Cluster sampling is a sampling method in which the population is divided into natural groups or subunits—known as clusters. Instead of randomly selecting individual persons or objects, entire clusters are selected at random, and subsequently, all units within them are examined (a complete census within the cluster).

Cluster sampling is a sampling method in which the population is divided into natural groups or subunits—known as clusters. Instead of randomly selecting individual persons or objects, entire clusters are selected at random, and subsequently, all units within them are examined (a complete census within the cluster).

A code, sometimes also called a category, is a short, precise label, such as a keyword, that helps researchers systematically structure non-numerical data such as interview transcripts, images or observations in order to uncover patterns and meanings. Codes are primarily distinguished by their origin, their level of abstraction and their function in the analysis process. Codes by origin are inductive, deductive or abductive. Codes by level of abstraction and content are descriptive, analytical and in vivo. Codes by methodological phase are divided into open, axial and selective coding.

A code, sometimes also called a category, is a short, precise label, such as a keyword, that helps researchers systematically structure non-numerical data such as interview transcripts, images or observations in order to uncover patterns and meanings. Codes are primarily distinguished by their origin, their level of abstraction and their function in the analysis process. Codes by origin are inductive, deductive or abductive. Codes by level of abstraction and content are descriptive, analytical and in vivo. Codes by methodological phase are divided into open, axial and selective coding.

A codebook is a systematic guide that serves as a translation key for data analysis. It specifies precisely how certain information, texts, or responses are translated into numbers, categories, or structured codes so that they can be analysed. A codebook thus ensures transparency and guarantees that data can be analyzed in a traceable, error-free, and structured manner. Its use varies depending on the discipline. In empirical social research (e.g., interviews and surveys), it lists all variables (e.g., questions from a questionnaire) and assigns fixed numerical values ​​to the possible answers (e.g., variable: gender -> 1 = female, 2 = male, 3 = diverse). In content analysis (texts, media, or videos), it is a detailed set of rules that defines which text passages or visual content are assigned to specific categories or codes. It ensures that multiple researchers can analyze the material completely objectively and consistently. In computer science and cryptography, the term is used historically or colloquially for directories in which words, phrases or letters are replaced by certain secret codes (ciphers).

A codebook is a systematic guide that serves as a translation key for data analysis. It specifies precisely how certain information, texts, or responses are translated into numbers, categories, or structured codes so that they can be analysed. A codebook thus ensures transparency and guarantees that data can be analyzed in a traceable, error-free, and structured manner. Its use varies depending on the discipline. In empirical social research (e.g., interviews and surveys), it lists all variables (e.g., questions from a questionnaire) and assigns fixed numerical values ​​to the possible answers (e.g., variable: gender -> 1 = female, 2 = male, 3 = diverse). In content analysis (texts, media, or videos), it is a detailed set of rules that defines which text passages or visual content are assigned to specific categories or codes. It ensures that multiple researchers can analyze the material completely objectively and consistently. In computer science and cryptography, the term is used historically or colloquially for directories in which words, phrases or letters are replaced by certain secret codes (ciphers).

Within coding as a qualitative analysis method, codes are primarily distinguished by their origin, their level of abstraction and their function in the analysis process. See also code.

The coding agenda, by contrast, is a higher-level objective that sets out the strategic roadmap and priorities for developing and using such a coding system in an organisation. It is the overarching research plan. It defines the overall research question, the time frame for the coding work, the division of tasks within the research team, who codes when and how often, and the scientific goals that are to be achieved through the analysis of the data.

A coding guide is a practical reference work that contains concrete rules and instructions for coding data, for example in medicine for diagnoses or in journalism for qualitative analyses. In qualitative research it is the methodological tool for qualitative data analysis, for example in semi-structured interviews. It contains the defined categories, precise assignment rules, for example when a text passage belongs in category A, as well as concrete anchor examples from the material.

A cognitive interview is a qualitative pre-test method for evaluating questionnaires. Its aim is to analyse the cognitive processes of comprehension, memory retrieval, judgement and response formulation that respondents go through when answering a survey question, thereby uncovering weaknesses in the questionnaire.

Collaborative partnership, or participation or participatory research, means that participants are not just research subjects but co-creators. The approach promotes collaboration from planning through to publication. Forms and briefing processes are adapted so that they are culturally understandable and match local forms of communication.

see Edited volume

Collectivity refers to the communal action, thinking, and coexistence of people. It describes a principle that prioritizes the group and the collective—in contrast to individualism, which emphasizes the single individual.

See bar chart.

A commentary is typically a short, incisive specialist text that evaluates, interprets, or discusses a topic rather than gathering new data itself. It may address a new study, a methodological trend, a professional debate, or an issue of significant scientific or societal relevance. One might say: the commentary is the moment when a field of study not only measures but also thinks out loud.

see Cf.

In academic writing, complexity (as the opposite of simplicity) refers to unnecessarily convoluted sentence structures, the excessive use of foreign words, and an artificially inflated style that distracts from the actual content.

CAPI, that is Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing, is a face-to-face interview in which the answer is entered directly into a digital device by the interviewer.

CATI, that is Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing, is a computer-assisted telephone interview in which, for example, AI asks the questions and records the answers.

Conceptual equivalence focuses on the fact that concepts are often closely tied to the respective culture. A German concept such as “Feierabend” has no direct equivalent in English or French and has to be paraphrased.

In science, a conclusion (from the Latin conclusio,) is a logically derived statement formed from preceding premises (assumptions, observations, or hypotheses). It constitutes the concluding part of a scientific argument, proof, or the core of a research paper's conclusion.

Concurrent validity indicates how well the results of a new test align with the results of an already established measurement procedure (with the criterion) if both assessments are conducted simultaneously.

Concurrent validity indicates how well the results of a new test align with the results of an already established measurement procedure (with the criterion) if both assessments are conducted simultaneously.

A scholarly conference is a structured gathering of researchers in which they present current work and findings, discuss studies submitted through the call for papers, and establish new contacts for academic exchange.

A conference contribution is the written or oral presentation of new research findings at a scholarly event, for example a congress, conference, or symposium. These contributions may be published as talks, posters, abstracts, or written papers in the so-called proceedings.

In statistics, a confidence interval indicates the range of values within which an unknown, true population parameter lies with a certain probability (the confidence level, usually 95% or 99%). It serves to assess the precision of an estimate derived from a sample.

In statistics, a confidence interval indicates the range of values within which an unknown, true population parameter lies with a certain probability (the confidence level, usually 95% or 99%). It serves to assess the precision of an estimate derived from a sample.

Confirmatory (also hypothesis-testing research) examines specific, pre-defined hypotheses using data to confirm or refute theories. It is based on existing knowledge, uses statistical significance tests (p-values) and is characterised by a structured approach. It serves to validate findings. Confirmatory methods such as Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) are typically used when theoretical assumptions already exist, such as when reviewing a questionnaire structure or validating models.

see Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)

Confirmatory factor analysis involves the use of p-values ​​as a central component for making decisions regarding the null hypothesis, while also utilizing existing knowledge. Confirmatory analysis stands in contrast to exploratory data analysis, which aims more at discovering new structures.

Confounding variables are all other factors that could also influence the result, for example room temperature or water supply. They should be kept constant to avoid distorting the data. Some confounding variables cannot be altered or controlled, but they still need to be documented.

Consensus pressure describes the social, political or structural pressure to achieve a unanimous opinion within a group or institution. Divergent views are suppressed or socially sanctioned in order to demonstrate often artificial unity.

It is important that theories always be testable. If this condition is not met, it is not a theory. Therefore, "conspiracy theories" are not theories—since they are often untestable, already refuted, or not scientific at all—and are referred to in relevant research as "conspiracy narratives." They are, after all, merely narratives.

see Conspiracy narratives

In science, construct validity refers to the extent to which a measurement instrument (e.g., a questionnaire or test) actually measures the abstract theoretical concept it is intended to measure. It is one of the most important quality criteria in empirical research.

Content analysis is an empirical method in social research through which communication content such as texts, images, videos or audio recordings, as well as their formal characteristics, are examined systematically, intersubjectively and according to rules. The aim is to structure extensive material, identify patterns and draw scientifically grounded conclusions about the content, origin or effect of communication.

Content validity is a scientific quality criterion. It indicates the extent to which the questions, tasks, or indicators of a measurement instrument (e.g., a questionnaire) [represent] the... ...fully and representatively capture the characteristic under investigation in all its aspects. In science, it serves as evidence that you are actually measuring what you intend to measure.

Content-structuring analysis is a qualitative analysis method in empirical research. Its aim is to organise, structure and evaluate textual material, such as interview transcripts or documents, systematically according to pre-defined content criteria without excessively shortening the full text.

It must be determined under which conditions an observation takes place.

Contingency analysis, as part of content analysis, codes the relationship in which a linguistic element appears with other linguistic elements in a text. If, for example, statements about violence and evaluations of violence are being sought in a text, contingency analysis additionally records which other statements the violence statements are associated with.

Contingency tables are mainly used for categorical data, such as occupation and preferred car model, to compare frequencies.

Contingency tables are mainly used for categorical data, such as occupation and preferred car model, to compare frequencies.

Contingency tables are mainly used for categorical data, such as occupation and preferred car model, to compare frequencies.

Contradictory statements are analytically false propositions. • Unemployment increases and decreases social isolation.

A controlled observation is a structured empirical research method in which researchers record participants’ behaviour in an artificial, standardised environment such as a laboratory. Unlike a true experiment, they do not actively intervene, but standardise the external setting in order to exclude confounding factors.

Natural selection is also called convenience sampling or “random selection for convenience”. This is the correct scientific term for what is often referred to in everyday language as “random” or “spontaneous”. People are selected because they are simply the easiest to reach. If a student asks the first 50 fellow students who walk past them outside the university library for their opinion, that would be an example.

Natural selection is also called convenience sampling or “random selection for convenience”. This is the correct scientific term for what is often referred to in everyday language as “random” or “spontaneous”. People are selected because they are simply the easiest to reach. If a student asks the first 50 fellow students who walk past them outside the university library for their opinion, that would be an example.

Conversation analysis, or CA, is an empirical qualitative method in social research that examines oral interactions and conversations micro-analytically. It is a special form of qualitative observation. Its aim is to reconstruct how people produce social reality, communication and meaning in direct interaction. The method analyses, among other things, turn-taking, repair mechanisms for misunderstandings, topic management and the construction of identity or knowledge in interaction.

Conversation analysis, or CA, is an empirical qualitative method in social research that examines oral interactions and conversations micro-analytically. It is a special form of qualitative observation. Its aim is to reconstruct how people produce social reality, communication and meaning in direct interaction. The method analyses, among other things, turn-taking, repair mechanisms for misunderstandings, topic management and the construction of identity or knowledge in interaction.

See GAT 2.

see Main quote

A corporate author is an institution, organisation, authority, or company listed as the author of a scholarly publication when the work is not written by individuals but published collectively in the name of the entity.

A corporate author is an institution, organisation, authority, or company listed as the author of a scholarly publication when the work is not written by individuals but published collectively in the name of the entity.

In addition to a factual presentation, correct source citation is extremely important. Correct citations consist of a short reference within the text (or a footnote) and a detailed entry in the bibliography. Key elements include the author, year, title, place of publication/publisher, or URL/DOI. Styles such as APA (author-year), Harvard (author-year), or the German citation style (footnotes) are commonly used.

A correlation is a statistical measure describing the precise strength and direction of a relationship (e.g., "the more A, the more B"). It does not automatically imply that one event causes the other (causality); both variables could be influenced by a third event.

A correlation analysis measures the strength and direction of a relationship, for example using the Pearson or Spearman correlation coefficient, especially when dealing with two metric variables.

The correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that quantifies the strength and direction of the linear relationship between two variables. It is usually abbreviated with the symbol r, for example in Pearson correlation, and takes values between -1 and +1; it is also dimensionless.

Court judgments, also referred to as cases or case law, are binding decisions of a court that conclude a dispute between parties, for example civil proceedings, criminal matters, or administrative disputes. They are delivered in the name of the people, include reasons, and become final when no further appeals are possible.

A cover letter is the formal cover letter that you send to the editors (Editor-in-Chief or Associate Editor) of a scientific journal when you submit your manuscript there for peer review. It is your personal business card as an author. The cover letter is not a place for great literary stories or exaggerated self-praise. It should be concise, professional and precise. His job is to show the editorial team in just a few paragraphs why the article is relevant, why it fits the journal and what makes it special.

Covert observation is a research method in which behavioural patterns are recorded without the observed individuals knowing that they are part of a study. The aim is to ensure natural, unaltered behaviour without reactivity, that is, without changes caused by being observed.

Criterion validity is a scientific quality criterion that checks whether the results of a measurement instrument (e.g., a test or questionnaire) align with a practically relevant external criterion. The measurement instrument is considered valid if it measures the characteristic in question in a way that proves effective in real-world settings.

Critical-dialectical research (or Critical Theory) aims to critique social conditions, uncover their historical conditioning and bring about change, rather than merely making them measurable.

Cultural dimensions research is an interdisciplinary approach in the social, economic and cultural sciences. It operationalises the abstract concept of “culture” into measurable, universal categories, such as power distance or individualism, in order to empirically compare country-specific value systems and behavioural patterns and minimise intercultural misunderstandings.

Careless word choice in back-translation can create apparent contradictions. Nuances, idioms and cultural adaptations can rarely be translated back word for word.

In cultural misunderstandings, the key point is that every linguistic expression is deeply tied to its respective culture. Direct translations can lead to embarrassing errors or the loss of deeper meanings.

Cultural relativism in methodology is the idea that phenomena should be understood from within the value system of the culture being studied. The uncritical application of often Western tests and concepts to other societies must be avoided.

Culturally responsive research ethics is an ethical approach in science that expands traditional, often Western-shaped research methods. It requires researchers to actively respect and integrate the cultural values, norms and lifeworlds of the people and communities involved, and to reduce power imbalances in the research process. Key pillars of this approach include decentralizing research, collaborative partnerships, informed consent, and avoiding exoticization.

The culture shock dilemma in research describes the methodological and ethical challenge of studying a foreign culture without distorting it through one’s own unconscious cultural lens. A tension arises between the researcher's own culture shock and the demand for objective data collection. This dilemma can be divided into three core areas: the researcher's own perspective as an obstacle, the paradox of ethnography, and subjective involvement.

see Italics

A data analysis method is a systematic procedure for deriving usable insights and answers to specific questions from collected raw data. It structures the path from a confusing mass of data to interpretable patterns, trends or recommendations for action. Depending on the objective and the type of data (numbers or text), different priorities are set.

Data cleaning is the essential process in which raw data are checked and corrected for errors, gaps or inconsistencies. It forms the basis of any scientific analysis. Only a cleaned dataset ensures reliable, valid and methodologically sound research results. To do this, incomplete or unreliable answers are removed.

Data cleaning is the essential process in which raw data are checked and corrected for errors, gaps or inconsistencies. It forms the basis of any scientific analysis. Only a cleaned dataset ensures reliable, valid and methodologically sound research results. To do this, incomplete or unreliable answers are removed.

A data collection method is a systematic procedure for gathering and analysing empirical information. In academia, business or administration, these methods are used to answer research questions, understand phenomena or make decisions based on facts. The choice of the right method depends on the research objective and the type of data required.

Data colonialism describes the appropriation of human life in the form of data by multinational digital corporations and governments in order to generate profit or exercise power.

see Fabrication

see Data manipulation

The creation or storage of new data that is factually incorrect, intended to deceive in legal transactions. There is no genuine original; the data is entirely fabricated (e.g., creating a forged digital PDF contract). The distinction between data forgery and data falsification—both in criminal law (e.g., § 269 of the German Criminal Code [StGB]: forgery of data of evidentiary significance) and in general usage—lies primarily in whether the data was completely fabricated from scratch or subsequently manipulated.

Data integrity means that the results presented actually correspond to the underlying data. This applies not only to experiments or surveys, but also to qualitative research, case studies or theoretical works, as long as sources, quotations or arguments are reproduced correctly. A clean article not only shows results, but also that those results were created trustworthy.

The term "data manipulation" can be understood in either a neutral or a negative sense. In computer science and data analysis, data manipulation refers to transforming raw data into a usable, structured format—essentially the neutral, technical process of systematically altering data. In a scientific context, data manipulation in the negative sense refers to the intentional falsification or improper alteration of research data. The goal is usually to achieve a desired result, confirm a hypothesis, or advance one's own career. It is also referred to as data falsification, denoting a subsequent unauthorized, fraudulent, or erroneous alteration that renders the result unusable or deceives third parties.

Data minimization requires researchers to collect only as much data as is absolutely necessary.

In science, data mining refers to the computer-assisted process of uncovering hidden patterns, correlations and regularities in large, often complex data sets using statistics and machine learning.

Data Paper / Data Report describes a data set, its collection, its structure, its accessibility and possible subsequent use, without evaluating the data set as a classic results study

See data cleaning.

see Data paper

see DBIS

DBIS (Database Information System) stands for Database Information System. It is a cooperative online portal of over 300 libraries in German-speaking countries that lists, structures, and organizes access to scientific databases.

Denzentrierung der Forschung descentramiento de la investigación

Deductive means drawing conclusions from general theories to specific individual cases. Thus, as the exact opposite of inductive research, it is a top-down approach. It is a theory-driven approach in which existing assumptions are tested, confirmed or refuted by data (usually quantitative). The process therefore proceeds from the general to the specific, with the aim of testing hypotheses (theory testing). Due to the nature of the subject matter, this approach is typical of structured theses at Bachelor’s and Master’s level, as well as for quantitative research. It is clear that deduction tests existing theories, whereas the inductive method develops a new theory from individual cases.

Deductive codes, also called theory-driven codes, are based on existing theories, literature or the structure of the interview guide. The categories are fixed before the analysis and are applied top-down to the material.

In content analysis, deductive means that the category is derived in advance from theory.

See inferential statistics.

see sensitive questions.

see socio-demographic questions.

A dependent variable, also called an outcome or target variable, is the factor measured in an experiment that changes depending on the independent variable. It represents the effect or result that is observed and quantified in order to test a scientific hypothesis.

Descriptive codes, also called descriptive codes, summarise what was said and stay close to the text. They assign topics in a factual way, for example “place: Berlin” or “topic: housing shortage”.

Descriptive questions, also called describing questions, are used to represent a current state, a phenomenon or a target group systematically and in detail. They answer what, where, when and how questions without explaining the causes of why. Their aim is to capture characteristics, frequencies or average values precisely, for example in market research or statistics. They describe reality objectively and without judgement. They often form the basis for further studies, for example explanatory or hypothesis-testing studies.

Descriptive statistics is a branch of statistics that systematically summarises, organises and graphically presents large amounts of data. Its central aim is to show the essential characteristics of a specific data set, for example a sample, in a clear and understandable way without drawing conclusions about a wider population. Unlike inferential statistics, descriptive statistics does not make assumptions or hypotheses about a broader population. It describes exactly and only the data that were actually collected. Descriptive statistics is divided into three important pillars: measures, graphical representations and tables with frequencies. Measures are numerical values that condense the centre, spread or relationship of the data, for example measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion or measures of association such as the correlation coefficient. Graphical representations are visualisations that make patterns, outliers and trends visible at a glance. These include bar and pie charts to show frequencies, histograms to represent distributions of values and box plots to show the median, outliers and the spread of the data. Tables and frequencies refer to the structured preparation of raw data, such as frequency tables.

Design questions are open, structuring questions used in creative, conceptual or strategic processes to analyse problems, develop new ideas and design innovative solutions. They form the basis of design, architecture, art and business innovation. They therefore aim at concrete recommendations for action or interventions. They are used in the first phase of the creative process in order to define the real core problem. In this context, a change of perspective helps break out of rigid thought patterns. They prevent getting lost in detail and keep the focus on usefulness. They also act as a catalyst for creativity and innovation.

A desk rejection (or desk reject) is the rejection of a scientific manuscript by the editor (editor-in-chief or associate editor) of a journal before it goes through the actual peer review process.

A diary study is a specific form of self-report method. The main difference lies in the time frame and the dynamics. While a classic self-report serves as a one-off snapshot, diary studies record experiences and behaviours continuously over a longer period. A diary study, often implemented digitally as an app, is a qualitative or quantitative longitudinal study. Over a period of a few days to several weeks, at regular intervals, often several times a day, participants’ reports of their current experience are recorded continuously and close to the moment. Participants independently record their experiences, behaviours or emotions in relation to a specific product, a service or their everyday life. The event is noted immediately after it happens. The focus is on capturing everyday fluctuations, routines, mood patterns or dynamic usage habits. The data are collected in real time and directly in the users’ natural environment in order to avoid memory gaps or distorted recollections. Participants record their experiences in short entries. This can take the form of text, photos, audio or video. One advantage is the high ecological validity: the data reflect real behaviour in everyday life rather than an artificial laboratory situation. Another advantage is trajectory detection, as it makes it possible to track changes, habit formation or emotional developments over time. Although diary studies are excellent for researching actual everyday user behaviour, they also have clear weaknesses. One disadvantage is the high burden on participants. Continuous documentation over several days or weeks takes a lot of time and discipline, which often leads to waning motivation. The great effort encourages premature dropout or incomplete datasets, known as missing data. Conscious participation in the study can also change participants’ behaviour or perceptions. These biased results caused by observation are called the Hawthorne effect. If entries are not made immediately after use but are collected later, for example in the evening, memory errors often creep in. Finally, analysis is often complex. The volume of qualitative data, for example free text or photos, must be structured and analysed, which is very time-consuming.

In this context, "dichotomous" means "divided in two," "forked," or "split." It describes the division of a system, concept, or characteristic into exactly two mutually exclusive categories (an "either-or" scenario). Synonyms include bipartite, twofold, dichotomous, or branched.

Dichotomous questions are single-choice questions with exactly two possible answers. They are ideal for quickly filtering participants, for example “Have you already been a customer?”. The disadvantage is that they are, of course, not very differentiating.

A digital handwriting script is a typeface that imitates handwriting and is used in digital contexts. Unlike more neutral and formal typefaces, it reproduces cursive, connected, or irregular strokes to create a personal or decorative appearance.

A digital library stores, manages, and makes electronic media accessible to users. Electronic media in this context include e-books, digitized historical texts, journals, audio files, and databases. The media are either directly owned by the respective library or licensed to its users.

see DOI

The dilemma interview is a qualitative and semi-standardised research method in which participants are confronted with a fictional or real conflict story. Its aim is to analyse the underlying structures of moral judgement, decision-making logic, for example utilitarian versus deontological, or professional coping strategies. It is based on the problem-centred interview.

A direct quotation (also verbatim quotation) is the exact, unaltered reproduction of a text passage from another source. In academic work, it serves to precisely substantiate important definitions, concise key statements, or specific formulations.

Discourse analysis is a qualitative analysis method in the humanities and social sciences. It examines how social reality, knowledge and power relations are constructed through language. The focus is not only on the pure content, but on the “how” of speaking: which concepts, metaphors and interpretative patterns are used and who is allowed to speak at all.

A discursive interview is a qualitative research method aimed at reconstructing social patterns of interpretation and systems of knowledge. Rather than simply collecting facts, the researcher deliberately confronts interviewees with counterarguments, differing perspectives or typical social theses in order to make their individual positioning within discourses visible.

The discussion is the core of a scientific paper. Here, the results are interpreted and placed within the existing state of research. Unlike the results section, this is where you answer what the findings mean and whether the initial hypotheses were confirmed or refuted. Here, you interpret the results and evaluate their scientific significance. It is essentially the answer to the question: "What do my results mean for the bigger picture?"

A dissertation, colloquially a doctoral thesis, is a substantial and independent academic work. It is the core of the doctorate and serves to demonstrate the ability to carry out advanced scholarly research. Acceptance of the dissertation is an essential requirement for obtaining the doctoral degree. It must contribute new scholarly findings, fill a research gap, and reflect the current state of research. Depending on the discipline and topic, a dissertation can comprise 100 to 250 pages (only in exceptional cases fewer). They are often submitted as monographs or as cumulative dissertations (several previously published or submitted articles with an overarching introduction).

see Dissertation

The doctorate is the complete academic process leading to the award of the doctoral degree. It is the highest academic qualification available at a university and serves as proof of the ability to conduct independent and advanced research.

A DOI (Digital Object Identifier) is a permanent, unchanging identifier for a specific digital object, such as a scientific article. Even if the document's location on the internet changes, the DOI remains and always reliably points to the correct document. It is the international standard for scientific publications to reliably cite sources and be able to find them again in the long term.

See scatter plot.

Double-blind peer review is a standard quality assurance process in science. When a scientific paper is submitted to a journal or conference, both the authors and the reviewing experts (peers) remain anonymous.

see Double-blind peer review

DPMA stands for the German Patent and Trade Mark Office. It is Germany’s central federal authority for industrial property rights and is responsible for granting and administering patents, trade marks, utility models, and designs. In science, it serves as a crucial instrument for securing intellectual property and commercializing research results.

see drop-out rate.

In science, the meaning of the drop-out rate, also called attrition rate, depends on the discipline. In empirical studies, it refers to the proportion of participants who drop out early. In engineering and technical sciences, by contrast, it indicates the frequency with which components or systems fail over time.

The Dunning-Kruger effect is a psychological phenomenon that describes the tendency of people with little knowledge or low competence in a particular field to grossly overestimate their own abilities whilst underestimating the competence of others. It arises because one’s own knowledge is assessed in relation to the limits of that knowledge. The more one knows, the greater those limits become.

In academic writing, especially in law, ECLI stands for the European Case Law Identifier. It is an internationally standardised code for the unique identification and citation of court decisions.

see Practical (societal / economic) relevance

see Exploratory statistics.

An edited volume, also called a collected volume or anthology, is an academic book that brings together contributions by several authors on a specific overarching theme. These individual texts, chapters, or articles are selected, compiled, and edited by one or more editors.

see Edited volume

In academic writing, an editor is a person or group that plans, selects, revises, and prepares for publication the scholarly contributions of different authors as a single collective work, for example an edited volume, anthology, or specialist journal.

Effect size, also called magnitude of effect, is a statistical measure that indicates how strong an observed effect, for example the difference between two groups or the relationship between two variables, is in practice. Unlike the p-value, it shows the practical or substantive significance of a result. These standardised values make studies mathematically comparable and can then be aggregated.

Effect size, also called magnitude of effect, is a statistical measure that indicates how strong an observed effect, for example the difference between two groups or the relationship between two variables, is in practice. Unlike the p-value, it shows the practical or substantive significance of a result. These standardised values make studies mathematically comparable and can then be aggregated.

Electronic sources are digital pieces of information accessible via electronic devices or networks, especially the internet. They differ from traditional print media in their volatility, meaning that their content can change, and in their existence in digital space. A webpage is a specific, visually organized document on the internet (e.g., a single subpage), while electronic sources are a general term for all digital materials, including webpages, PDFs, eBooks, and online videos. Every webpage is an electronic source, but not every electronic source is a webpage. Thus, things like eBooks, e-journals, and online databases also belong to the category of electronic sources, although they are not necessarily found on webpages.

In science, eligibility, from the English eligible (“suitable”, “admissible”, “entitled”), refers to the suitability, admissibility or eligibility of people, data or studies for a specific research project.

see eligibility

In the embedded design, one method, either quantitative or qualitative, dominates the research, while the other, subordinate method, is embedded in a specific phase to clarify additional detail questions.

The emic perspective, that is, the insider view, describes a culture or behaviour from the point of view of the members of the respective group. The aim is to understand how insiders perceive their own world, what values they hold and what makes sense to them. The approach is subjective and culture-specific.

empirische Analyse Análisis empirico

Empirical statements make claims about states of affairs that are observable in principle and can be true or false. They can be non-singular (statistical-hypothetical) or singular.

Whilst the empirical-analytical approach is based on empiricism, objectivity, measurability and quantitative methods, other approaches focus on understanding and evaluating contextual relationships. Scientific research that is not empirical-analytical often dispenses with the strict separation of value judgements and facts, and explicitly incorporates ethical or normative assessments into the research.

Empiricism (or empirical) simply means experience. It concerns everything we can perceive in the real world using our senses or measuring instruments. When you collect data, make observations or conduct interviews, you are operating within the realm of empiricism. To put it in colloquial terms, empiricism is the reality check or ‘field research’.

In academia, EPA refers to the European Patent Office. It acts as the central authority through which researchers and institutions can obtain patent protection for their technical inventions in up to 45 European countries with a single application.

The so-called equivalence problem therefore has to be addressed. It describes the linguistic and cultural challenge that words, sentences or concepts from a source language cannot be translated one-to-one into a target language without losing meaning, tone or cultural context.

see European Research Area (ERA)

see European Research Area (ERA)

In science, error analysis is the systematic investigation of deviations and measurement uncertainties. It serves to evaluate the reliability of research findings, identify sources of error, and pinpoint the true value of a measured quantity or observation as precisely as possible.

Ethical discrepancies can arise. Ethical principles such as informed consent, autonomy or anonymity are universal, but they are interpreted very differently across cultures. What is considered standard in Western systems may be inappropriate or may cause mistrust in collectivist societies. What in Europe is handled through consent forms works differently in indigenous communities or hierarchical societies. Sometimes the village chief must approve things before one can even speak to individuals.

Ethics approval (also referred to as an ethical opinion) is the written statement issued by an independent ethics committee certifying the ethical and legal acceptability of a research project.

The tendency to regard one’s own ethnic group or culture as the standard for all others and to see it as superior is called ethnocentrism.

see field conversation.

The ethnographic paradox describes the methodological dilemma that researchers change the natural behaviour of a group or person simply through their presence and the observation process itself.

The etic perspective, that is, the outsider view, describes a culture or behaviour from the perspective of an uninvolved observer or researcher. In this case, universal, theory-guided categories and standards are often used to compare different cultures objectively. The approach is objective and cross-cultural.

An EU regulation is a genuine European law that applies immediately and word for word in all Member States without national transposition. By contrast, a domestic regulation, for example in Germany, is an executive rule that ranks below an Act of Parliament in the hierarchy of norms.

EU-Verordnung Regulación UE

Eurocentrism describes a way of thinking that unreflectively turns Europe into the absolute standard.

see ECLI

see ECLI

see EPA

The European Research Area (ERA) is a policy concept and the European Union’s common "internal market for knowledge." It aims to closely interconnect national research systems, thereby enabling the free exchange of researchers, scientific knowledge, and technologies across Europe.

In evaluative content analysis, the material is assessed according to certain criteria, for example “high”, “medium”, “low” or “positive”, “neutral”, “negative”.

An event, for example a lecture, panel discussion, or guest talk, is an oral primary source. In an academic context, these are not large scholarly conferences but rather practical or internal events. They include guest lectures or keynote speeches, lectures or seminars, panel discussions, internal company presentations, or personal conversations and interviews.

Event sampling is an observation method in empirical research in which the occurrence, frequency or duration of a behaviour or event defined precisely in advance is recorded throughout the entire observation period.

Event sampling is an observation method in empirical research in which the occurrence, frequency or duration of a behaviour or event defined precisely in advance is recorded throughout the entire observation period.

see naive observation.

In science, the term "evidence" refers to empirically substantiated findings or proof. It represents the current state of knowledge regarding a specific question, supported by systematic and transparent studies. It serves to confirm or refute hypotheses or theories, thereby establishing substantiated knowledge.

In an academic context, this refers to the excessive and often unnatural use of technical terms, foreign words, and coined terms. This linguistic phenomenon is also referred to as academic jargon, incomprehensible technical jargon, or "academic-speak." The term derives from the Latin *excedere* (to go beyond, to exceed a limit) and describes a form of linguistic excess. An accumulation of unnecessary foreign words often appears to be an attempt to artificially elevate the text rather than a means of conveying content. When used to excess, this type of jargon can even create an impression of a lack of credibility.

In science, especially in cultural, social and postcolonial studies, exoticisation denotes that process of othering in which non-Western cultures, ethnicities or geographical spaces are constructed from a Eurocentric or white-Western perspective as mysterious, unusual or fundamentally “other”, and reduced to those characteristics.

An experiment is a structured scientific method used to test cause-and-effect relationships. One or more conditions are deliberately changed in order to observe and measure how those changes affect the outcome. In scientific terms, an experiment is a methodically designed investigation for obtaining empirical information.

Experimental development, as a part of research, is the systematic implementation of existing scientific or technical knowledge in practice. The goal is to develop new or significantly improved products, processes, or services to market readiness, for example, through the construction of prototypes or pilot plants.

Expert interviews, also called specialist interviews, are used to question specialists or people with specific insider knowledge or experience in a targeted way. It is a special form of guided interview. An important point here is identifying the experts, and a stakeholder analysis can help with that. It is a targeted qualitative interview with experts in the field. The focus is on factual information, specialist knowledge and the assessment of specific relationships, while the interviewee’s personal opinion takes a back seat.

The expert interview pre-test consists of trying out and reviewing an interview guide with experts before carrying out the final interviews. Its purpose is to check whether the questions are understandable, relevant and appropriate to the research aim, and to correct possible wording or content errors.

An expert review as part of a pre-test is a dress rehearsal for scientific data collection instruments such as questionnaires or interview guides. Before actual data collection, the draft is reviewed by subject-matter experts and methodologists to check its comprehensibility, methodological errors and fit with the research question.

Explanatory (also known as explanatory research) is a scientific approach that aims to explain the causes and relationships of an already known phenomenon, rather than merely describing it. It tests specific, theory-based hypotheses to answer the “why” and “how”.

A sequential design in which quantitative data are collected first is called an explanatory design. The results obtained are then explored and explained in a second, qualitative phase. Usually, the quantitative data form the basis for the qualitative data collection.

Explanatory questions, also called explanation or causal questions, ask the other person to set out the causes, connections or motivations behind a certain phenomenon or behaviour. They are used to understand background and gain deeper insight. They are open questions and cannot simply be answered with yes or no. Their aim is to reveal cause-and-effect relationships or logical processes. They usually begin with why, how come or what is the reason that.

Explanatory questions, also called explanation or causal questions, ask the other person to set out the causes, connections or motivations behind a certain phenomenon or behaviour. They are used to understand background and gain deeper insight. They are open questions and cannot simply be answered with yes or no. Their aim is to reveal cause-and-effect relationships or logical processes. They usually begin with why, how come or what is the reason that.

see Explanatory

see anamnesis.

An exploratory approach is an open, investigative method used to explore under-researched areas, unfamiliar topics or poorly understood problems, and to generate new hypotheses (hypothesis-generating). It serves to uncover relationships rather than to test existing theories. Qualitative methods such as interviews or literature reviews are typically used.

See exploratory statistics.

If qualitative data are collected first, this is an exploratory design. The insights gained then form the basis for a later quantitative phase, for example for developing a questionnaire. In this way, the data are used to build the quantitative data collection. Theories based on qualitative data can also be tested quantitatively in this way. For example, one might first conduct qualitative interviews to explore a new topic, and then use the findings to develop a standardised questionnaire for a large quantitative study.

see in-depth interview.

Exploratory questions, from the Latin explorare meaning “to explore, investigate”, are open questions used to explore a topic that has not yet been studied much, develop new ideas or gain deeper insight into the interviewees’ thinking. They are characterised by not forcing predetermined answers, but instead opening the way to new perspectives and hypotheses. They serve to explore little-known territory and to build theory. Because they are open, they cannot be answered with a simple yes or no. They usually begin with what, how, why or to what extent. They are neutrally formulated and do not influence the respondent’s answer. They aim to understand motives, attitudes, feelings or causes.

Exploratory statistics, also called exploratory data analysis or EDA, is a branch of statistics in which data sets are examined without testing hypotheses fixed in advance. Its aim is to discover new patterns, structures or anomalies in the data and thus generate hypotheses for further research. It can be described through four key ideas: hypothesis generation, a visual approach, an iterative process and outlier detection. Unlike confirmatory statistics, exploratory statistics seeks insights openly, asking what the data are saying rather than validating prior assumptions. A central tool is graphical representation, such as scatter plots, histograms or box plots, which make trends visible at a glance. The iterative process means that by looking at the data from different perspectives, new questions arise that lead to further analyses. Finally, noticeable deviations that were not expected in advance are identified and analysed.

A researcher interviews five users about their experiences with a new app and uses this to develop a theory on how user-friendliness can be improved in general (inductive), rather than testing an existing usability theory (deductive).

see Research proposal

External observation, also called observation by an outsider, is a scientific or systematic method in which an outside person records the behaviour, actions or interactions of another person or group. It is the opposite of self-observation.

see oral history.

In science, fabrication (data fabrication) refers to the invention of data, observations, or results that never actually occurred. It constitutes a serious violation of good scientific practice and is a form of scientific misconduct.

Factor analysis is a multivariate statistical method that reduces complex data sets with many variables to a few underlying causes that cannot be measured directly, called factors. It is used to structure data and helps make hidden patterns and relationships visible.

underlying causes that cannot be measured directly

A factual presentation is characterized by a description of events or topics that is neutral, unbiased, and free from personal feelings, opinions, or value judgments. The focus is strictly on facts, data, and concrete details.

The FAIR data principles are international guidelines for research data management. They were developed to optimally prepare, share and reuse scientific data—for both people and machines, for example through artificial intelligence. The FAIR principles were initiated in 2016 by the FORCE11 community and are now the global standard in science. FAIR is an acronym for Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable. Findable means that data must be uniquely identifiable and easy to find. This is achieved through persistent identifiers, such as a DOI, and detailed metadata. Accessible requires that access to the data is clearly regulated. Retrieval should take place via standardised, open protocols. Even if the data themselves are protected, the metadata must remain publicly accessible. Interoperable means that data and metadata must be in a standardised, machine-readable language so that systems from different institutions can exchange and combine data without problems. Finally, Reusable states that the value of data lies in its reuse. Data must therefore be accompanied by a clear usage licence and detailed information about their provenance.

False friends are terms that sound or look very similar in different languages but have completely different meanings.

Falsifiability (also refutability) is a central principle of the philosophy of science according to Karl Popper. It states that a scientific statement or theory is only valid if it can, in principle, be refuted by observations or experiments

In science, especially in psychology, neuroscience and qualitative research, familiarization refers to the systematic process by which a participant or researcher becomes familiar with stimuli, environments or data through repeated exposure.

A field conversation, also called an ethnographic interview, is an open, unstructured qualitative interview. It takes place directly in the natural living or working environment of the target group, that is, in the “field”. Instead of a rigid question catalogue, it uses spontaneous, everyday-style questions to understand the meaning of unfamiliar life worlds, subcultures or routines. It is based on the informal interview.

A field experiment is a scientific research method in which a hypothesis is tested in the real, natural environment of the participants, for example at work, in a supermarket or in traffic. Unlike a laboratory experiment, the setting is not artificially controlled. Its aim is to determine cause-and-effect relationships. To do this, a deliberate change is introduced, that is, the independent variable, in order to measure its effect on the participants’ behaviour, that is, the dependent variable. Its advantage is that the results reflect real life and can be transferred more easily to reality. If participants do not know that they are part of the study, they act more authentically and naturally than in an artificial laboratory. However, because the experiment takes place in everyday life, unforeseen confounding factors may influence the result. If participants take part in experiments without knowing it, questions of informed consent may also arise.

A field interview as a form of group interview, often also called a group discussion or focus group, is an empirical data collection method. The researcher interviews several people at the same time in their natural environment. It is an informal interview with natural groups in the context of field research.

see naturalistic observation

Field research (also known as a field study) refers to the systematic collection of empirical data in the immediate environment of the subjects under investigation (in the ‘field’). It contrasts with laboratory research and is characterised by the observation of events in their natural, unaltered environment. In field research, the researcher cannot influence environmental conditions such as light or temperature.

see Primary research

see Field research (control of conditions

These are fieldwork anecdotes in which surveys went completely wrong because cultural taboos were ignored, for example asking about income in cultures where money is not talked about.

The file drawer problem (also known as publication bias) refers to the tendency in science to preferentially publish positive, significant results, while studies with negative or inconclusive results (null findings) often remain unpublished, disappearing into researchers' file drawers. This phenomenon distorts scientific perception because the published literature does not reflect the full picture. Therefore, it is important to publish studies that do not confirm the original hypothesis. It is also important to resist the temptation to filter data until a p-value of less than 0.05 is achieved—a practice known as "p-hacking."

The file drawer problem (also known as publication bias) refers to the tendency in science to preferentially publish positive, significant results, while studies with negative or inconclusive results (null findings) often remain unpublished, disappearing into researchers' file drawers. This phenomenon distorts scientific perception because the published literature does not reflect the full picture. Therefore, it is important to publish studies that do not confirm the original hypothesis. It is also important to resist the temptation to filter data until a p-value of less than 0.05 is achieved—a practice known as "p-hacking."

Films are audiovisual media that serve as independent historical, cultural, or scholarly sources. They do not represent reality in a purely objective way, but also reflect the viewpoints, attitudes, and spirit of the time in which they were created.

In science, the term “filter bubble”, originally coined by activist Eli Pariser, refers to a phenomenon in which search engine and social media algorithms personalise the information offered to individuals. As a result, users increasingly see only content that confirms their own preferences and opinions. However, the extent to which algorithms actually isolate users in this way remains a matter of debate in communication and media studies.

A filter question, or question filter, guides respondents in surveys or interviews to the questions relevant to them and excludes those not concerned from further irrelevant questions. This ensures an efficient and logical questionnaire structure. Participants are not bothered with questions that do not apply to them. It also reduces respondent frustration, since they can skip irrelevant questions. This prevents careless answers or survey dropouts. Finally, it ensures that only people who meet a certain condition answer specific follow-up questions. In online surveys, filters are usually programmed so that irrelevant questions are completely invisible to the participant or automatically skipped. In printed format, explicit instructions are often used, such as “If you answer no, please go to question 5.”

The final notes includes a summary, a conclusion, the bibliography, the appendix, and the declaration of originality. A conclusion answers the research question and provides an outlook on further research needs. The bibliography lists all sources used, for example, alphabetically. The appendix contains all extensive data, figures, questionnaires, or interview transcripts that would disrupt the flow of the main body. With the declaration of originality, the author affirms that the work was written independently. Depending on institutional rules, this may also be included in the introduction.

The terms focus group and group discussion are often used as synonyms, since every focus group is a moderated group discussion. Nevertheless, there are subtle methodological differences in terms of purpose and group dynamics. A focus group is a specific form of group discussion used primarily in market research and applied research. Its aim is to obtain explicit opinions, feedback and ideas on a concrete topic, for example a new product or a web service. Rather than focusing on group dynamics, it emphasises a factual and solution-oriented approach. The moderator uses a specific, semi-structured discussion guide to obtain answers to targeted questions. The participants are usually a relatively homogeneous group, for example a specific target group. While a focus group aims to provide concrete answers to a specific question quickly, a group discussion serves to explore social dynamics and deeply rooted patterns of opinion within a group.

A focused interview, developed by Merton and Kendall, is a qualitative interview form in which the conversation is directed towards a specific, previously analysed stimulus, for example a film, an advertisement or an experience. Its aim is to capture in detail how the interviewee perceives, interprets and reacts emotionally to that object. It is based on the problem-centred interview.

A font is the concrete digital file of a typeface. It includes all letters, numbers, and special characters of a particular design and determines how text appears on screen or in print.

In typography and science, a font family refers to a group of related typefaces. They share the same basic design characteristics but vary in stroke weight (e.g., bold), position (e.g., italic), and character width (e.g., narrow bold). A font family usually consists of several variations of the typeface, known as font styles. Each of these styles is a separate font.

Font size is the typographic measure for the vertical extent of letters and characters. It determines how large or small a text is displayed.

Font size is the typographic measure for the vertical extent of letters and characters. It determines how large or small a text is displayed.

A font style, also called a cut, is a specific variant of a typeface within a type family. In academic writing, different font styles such as italics, bold, or small caps are deliberately used as typographic devices to distinguish quotations, definitions, or emphasis from standard body text.

A font style, also called a cut, is a specific variant of a typeface within a type family. In academic writing, different font styles such as italics, bold, or small caps are deliberately used as typographic devices to distinguish quotations, definitions, or emphasis from standard body text.

A footnote is an addition placed at the bottom of the page, used to document direct or indirect quotations. It ensures the traceability of scholarly statements, preserves the flow of the main text, and prevents plagiarism. It is the discreet butler of the citation world. In the actual text, only a small superscript number appears, while the actual source reference waits at the bottom of the same page. So in the text there is only a small number, and at the very bottom of the page you read the exact breakdown of the source. This keeps the main text wonderfully clean and easy to read. However, the reader’s eye has to keep jumping between the text and the foot of the page, which requires a certain amount of acrobatics.

The literal reproduction of a passage written in another language within one’s own academic work. It is used as documentary support, especially where the original source cannot be translated adequately. The rules of citation, formatting, and the handling of translations must be observed.

A forest plot, also called a wood plot, is a summary chart in medical and scientific statistics. It presents the results of several individual studies, as well as their combined overall result, clearly in a single figure in order to show the current state of research on a specific question.

Formal sciences are disciplines that deal with the analysis of abstract concepts, systems, and rules. They do not investigate physical reality, but rather create logical and linguistic structures that serve as tools and foundations for all other sciences. They are closely related to the structural sciences.

Formal suitability concerns whether the article meets the journal's guidelines and formal requirements. These include length, structure, citation style, DOI details, and figure formats.

see Preliminary Notes

A free discussion is an open, unbiased and usually moderated dialogue in which participants exchange ideas without a rigid agenda or strict speaking times. The focus is on jointly developing ideas, exploring problems or understanding viewpoints, without necessarily needing to reach a final decision.

A “free protocol”, often used as a synonym for unstructured or open observation, is a qualitative method in which researchers record events as impartially as possible and without rigid category systems or observation sheets, in the form of field notes or detailed reports.

In frequency analysis, as part of content analysis, the only thing that matters is how often counting units could be assigned to the categories of the coding scheme. It assumes that the frequency with which certain categories appear in texts is an indicator of the importance of the category in relation to the research question. The subject can also be visual, such as images and films, for example homicide rates in films or changing fashion trends.

A frequency distribution is a statistical representation that shows how often certain values or characteristics occur in a data set. It forms the basis of empirical data analysis and determines which calculation methods are used in research.

The full citation style includes all bibliographic information. It contains all essential publication data and is used in footnotes when a source is first mentioned. The components, depending on the citation style, are: last name, first name, title, place of publication, publisher, year, and page number.

see Original research article

see Full citation style

In science, a gain in knowledge refers to the systematic accumulation of verified, verifiable knowledge. It is the overarching goal of all research and arises from answering a specific research question, thereby uncovering new connections or confirming, expanding, or refuting existing theories. Scientific knowledge acquisition differs significantly from mere gut feeling or everyday conjecture due to its methodological approach.

GAT 2, short for Gesprächsanalytisches Transkriptionssystem 2, is a scientific standard for the precise transcription of spoken language, used mainly in linguistics and qualitative social research. It serves to represent not only the words themselves, but also paraverbal features such as emphasis, speech rate, intonation, pauses and laughter.

The GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) is a directly applicable EU-wide legal regulation. Its aim is to protect the personal data of natural persons and to guarantee the free flow of such data. It regulates how companies, public authorities, and organizations collect, store, and process data. The GDPR applies to all organizations, regardless of where the company is based, that process data of EU citizens.

see GDPR

The German citation style, also called the GHOST style, identifies sources by means of footnotes at the bottom of the page, often with a full reference at the first mention and shortened references thereafter. The full reference includes the author’s surname and given name, the title, the edition, the place of publication, the publisher, the year of publication, and the page. The shortened reference includes only the author’s surname, the year, and the page. A full bibliography appears at the end. Ibid. is used when the source is identical to the footnote immediately above it. Unlike the Harvard style or APA, where sources appear in parentheses in the text, the German style keeps the reading flow cleaner through the use of footnotes.

see German citation style

Global refers to the whole world and includes all continents and countries, for example climate change. That is why it makes sense to speak of international research in a general sense.

A glossary is an alphabetical list of terms found in a book or document that defines technical terms, foreign words, or abbreviations requiring explanation. It serves as a reference tool to make texts easier to follow. Glossaries usually appear at the end of a book, but in academic papers—such as bachelor’s or master’s theses—they may also be placed before the main body of the text. A glossary explains complex technical terms, foreign words, and definitions, whereas a list of abbreviations is simply a list of shortened forms (e.g., BGB, USA) and their full-form meanings.

see central tendency bias.

Google Scholar is a free, open-access search engine from Google, specifically designed for academic literature. It is aimed at students, researchers, and academics and helps them find scholarly articles, books, dissertations, abstracts, and patents.

Grey literature encompasses all written or digital documents that are not distributed through commercial or public publishers (e.g., Bundesanzeiger Verlag GmbH). Since they do not originate from official publishing channels, they usually lack a standardized identifier (such as an ISBN).

see Sans Serif

grounded in the object

The grounded theory methodology is a qualitative research approach in which a new theory is developed directly from empirical data rather than testing existing theories. The theory is therefore “grounded” in the object. It was developed in the 1960s by the sociologists Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss. To document the process clearly, researchers often use qualitative analysis software. The procedure does not follow a rigid line, but is circular and iterative. This means that data collection, data analysis and theory building do not take place one after another, but alternate.

See grounded theory.

A group discussion is a qualitative data collection method in empirical social research in which, unlike studies involving individual respondents, the aim is to capture a group’s thematic contributions or the communication within it. In other words, several people discuss a topic, with group dynamics at the centre. This method is particularly important in qualitative research in the social and educational sciences. It is also widely used in market research. It is a good way to prepare a group for a study, gather initial information about the attitudes and interests of those affected, and obtain additional information about a target group. No other interviewing format is as helpful for understanding deeper collective patterns of thought and behaviour, attitudes, opinions and social milieux. The interaction should resemble a natural everyday conversation. It is easy to combine with other data collection methods, which in turn can increase reliability. The major drawback of this method is its lack of representativeness and generalisability. In the end, it captures group content only, not individual aspects. It is normal for participation within groups to be uneven, so that quieter members have little influence on the group outcome. The composition of the group has a major influence on its dynamics.

Group dynamics describes the reciprocal relationships, forces and processes that arise when people interact in a group, for example in a team. It is visible in how members communicate, make decisions, develop roles and resolve conflicts. After all, the whole is more and different than the sum of its parts. In everyday conversation settings, when people feel secure, spontaneous and uncontrolled reactions can be encouraged. It is worth noting that some participants feel more comfortable in a group, which reduces their inhibition to take part. Through mutual exchange within the group, participants encourage one another to contribute and share. As a snowball effect, new and different content emerges within the group. However, group dynamics can also be a source of disruption. It can lead to confusion when people speak in an uncontrolled and simultaneous way. Equally, participants may hold back from speaking, making the group discussion very sluggish. This may be due to group pressure or consensus pressure. Group pressure, often synonymous with peer pressure, describes the social pressure to conform to a group’s behaviour, values or consumption in order not to be rejected. Consensus pressure, by contrast, is a formal or informal rule that demands absolute unanimity in decision-making processes and systematically suppresses dissenting views.

A group interview is a qualitative data collection method in science. A researcher interviews several people at the same time using a guide, rather than collecting only isolated individual opinions.

Group pressure, also called peer pressure or conformity pressure, describes the social influence that a community, for example a circle of friends, colleagues or family, exerts on the individual. This pressure leads people to adapt their behaviour or opinions to the group in order to be accepted.

For economic and time reasons, instead of individual interviews it is also possible to interview several interlocutors at the same time. These group survey differ from group discussions or focus groups, because they are more oriented towards the interview format and make less use of group dynamics to obtain results. These forms include brainstorming, field interviewing and the group interview.

see Categorization

In science, the term “guide” has two main meanings: it refers either to an instrument for data collection, as in a semi-structured interview, or to a handbook for formal and methodological standards when writing scientific papers.

see Semi-structured interview.

see Semi-structured interview.

Practice guideline; consolidates existing evidence and translates it into recommendations for action. Its importance is particularly evident in medicine, healthcare, and policy areas.

see Signpost sentence

In page layout, the gutter refers to the unprinted margins outside the page area extending to the edge of the paper. They provide visual support for the text, prevent text from disappearing during binding, and offer space for corrections or notes.

The halo effect, also called the irradiation effect, describes the influence of one question’s content by a previous question or thematic block.

The halo effect, also called the irradiation effect, describes the influence of one question’s content by a previous question or thematic block.

The halo effect, also called the irradiation effect, describes the influence of one question’s content by a previous question or thematic block.

HARKing is the English acronym for "Hypothesizing After the Results are Known." It refers to the scientifically questionable practice of collecting data, examining the results, and only then formulating a "fitting" hypothesis—while presenting it in the research report as if it had been established prior to the start of the experiment.

The Harvard citation style, or author-date system, is characterised by source references appearing directly in the running text, usually in parentheses, and by the absence of footnotes. It includes a short citation in the text (name, year, page) immediately after the quotation and before the full stop, plus a full reference list. Indirect quotations are marked with cf.. When there are two authors, both are named; from three onwards, the name of the first author is followed by et al.. Secondary citations are marked cited in. If no author can be identified, an organisation or a title may be used for differentiation.

The Hawthorne effect refers in science to the phenomenon whereby participants change their natural behaviour as soon as they know that they are taking part in a study or being observed. The mere attention of researchers often leads to performance improvements or behavioural adjustments, which can distort study results.

Helicopter research, also called parachute research and in English parachute science or safari study, is a controversial practice in science and a form of neocolonial science. Researchers—usually from the affluent Global North—travel to countries in the Global South, collect data or samples there, fly back home and publish the results without involving the local population or local scientists.

In science, hermeneutics is the theory and method of understanding and interpretation. Its goal is not merely to examine texts, human actions, symbols, and entire cultures superficially, but to decipher their deeper meaning and context.

HIAT stands for Halbinterpretative Arbeitstranskription and is a scientific procedure for transcribing spoken language. It was developed in the 1970s by Konrad Ehlich and Jochen Rehbein. The system is mainly used in linguistics, functional-pragmatic discourse analysis and conversation analysis.

The front page of a website is called the homepage.

Honest representation in science is achieved through radical transparency and strict adherence to good scientific practice. This encompasses the full disclosure of all data and methods (Open Science), the pre-registration of studies, and a deliberate, neutral approach to handling unexpected or "non-significant" results. This represents the clear link to the quality criterion of honesty.

Honesty (or integrity) is the paramount fundamental principle of all scientific work. It means presenting research findings truthfully and transparently, clearly identifying the intellectual property of others, and disclosing methods in such a way that third parties can follow and verify your work. Even from this explanation, one can recognize the strong link to other quality criteria such as clarity, verifiability, and traceability. Honesty fosters credibility and trust in research. It also demonstrates that the researcher takes responsibility for their work products (artifacts). It thus forms the foundation of so-called "Good Scientific Practice." Scientific honesty—and by extension, scientific integrity—can be divided into four central pillars: the correct handling of sources and citations, truthful data collection and analysis, transparent methodology, and objectivity combined with factual presentation.

This term is broader. It covers everything that deals with humans as physical, mental, and cultural beings.

The humanities and cultural studies deal with humankind, its thinking, its actions, and the cultural works it creates. The focus is on understanding, interpretation, and historical analysis. Examples include philosophy, history, literature, and linguistics.

Hybrid questions, also called semi-open questions in surveys and questionnaires, combine closed and open questions. First, respondents choose from predefined answer options in a closed format, but afterwards they have the opportunity to justify or expand their choice in their own words in an open format. There are two typical variants: selection with a text field and the “Other” option. In selection with a text field, after predefined answer categories such as “Very satisfied”, “Satisfied”, “Dissatisfied”, a text box follows with the prompt “Please justify your answer.” In multiple-choice questions there is also the “Other” option, together with an open input field. In this way, unexpected answers are not lost because of the “Other” option. They also provide not only numbers but also concrete qualitative opinions and details. However, analysing free-text responses takes much more time because they often have to be categorised manually. Unfortunately, respondents often perceive open text fields as more tiring and are more likely to abandon surveys.

see Scientific hypothesis

see Statistical hypothesis

In hypothesis testing, scientific assumptions are checked against the data to assess their validity. A null hypothesis, which states that there is no effect or difference, is compared with an alternative hypothesis, which states that an effect or difference does exist. Based on the significance level, often α = 0.05, it is calculated whether the result is statistically significant. Inferential statistics is well known in politics through projections and election trends based on voter surveys.

see Confirmatory

see HARKing

"ibid." is the abbreviation of the Latin term "ibidem," meaning "ibidem" or "in the same place." It is used in academic writing to refer to the same source (and page number) as in the preceding footnote when quoting directly after another, thus avoiding redundancy. In German, "ibid." is generally avoided, and "edb." is used instead. or the repetition of the last name was used.

When quoting the same source repeatedly within a paragraph (without interruption from other sources), the source is cited in full the first time. Subsequent quotations can be significantly shortened, for example, by using "ibid." (ibidem) in footnotes or by omitting the year when mentioning the author. If the author's name is mentioned again in the text (narratively), the year can be omitted (e.g., "Müller also emphasizes..."). Parenthetical citations generally include the author and page number again (Müller, p. 18). Other possible abbreviations are "ibid." (ibidem) or "ibid."

The IEEE citation style is a numerical system used mainly in technical fields such as electrical engineering, computer science, and engineering. It originates from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and provides a clear, space-saving citation format for technical writing.

Ignorance refers to a lack of knowledge, understanding, or information regarding a specific matter. It is a state in which a person lacks the necessary insight, experience, or information to fully understand or evaluate a subject.

In the context of academic publications, the Journal Impact Factor (JIF)—or simply "Impact Factor"—is often encountered as an indicator of a "valid" or "proper" source. The Journal Impact Factor (JIF) is a metric representing the average citation frequency of articles within a scientific journal. It does not measure the citation potential of individual papers; rather, it serves as an indicator of the journal's visibility and prestige within its specific field. While it acts as a rough indicator of a journal's prestige, it provides no direct information regarding the citation worthiness or content quality of any single article. Consequently, the Impact Factor has no direct bearing on the assessment of a source for one's own work.

To ensure that journal articles are readable, verifiable, and compatible with existing scholarship, standardized structural patterns have evolved across many disciplines. The best-known and most important of these is the IMRaD principle: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. The IMRaD model is widely used—particularly for empirical articles—because it translates the research process into a coherent narrative. It clearly distinguishes between the initial problem, the methodology, the findings, and the interpretation. This prevents everything from happening at once and keeps the text from becoming a jumble of background information, data, and analysis.

In-depth interviews, also called exploratory or psychological interviews, are very open one-to-one conversations that delve deeply into the interviewee’s emotional world or personal attitudes. This special form of interview is also intended to uncover deeply rooted convictions or unconscious motives.

In this form of citation, the reference is not separated from the text but appears directly in the body of the text, usually in parentheses, immediately after the borrowed idea. For example, a reference such as (Mustermann, 2024, p. 42) may appear in the middle of a sentence. Its main advantage is that writing feels very dynamic and the author can be seen immediately. Its disadvantage is that reading can become slightly clumsy when many citations appear in quick succession, rather like a small stumble in the sentence.

In-vivo codes are a special form of inductive coding. They use the exact original terms or expressions of the interviewees as codes in order to capture their own perspective without distortion.

see Excessive use of jargon

An independent variable is the cause in a cause-and-effect relationship. It is the factor deliberately changed in an experiment in order to measure its direct effect on another variable, the dependent variable

see Indexing

In literature research, indexing means the systematic recording of academic journals in databases (e.g., Web of Science or Scopus). Journals indexed in such databases undergo rigorous quality control. Researchers use them as a guide to find trustworthy sources, and publishers strive to use them to increase the visibility of their own articles.

An indicator (from the Latin indicare, "to show") is a sign, measurement, or tool that makes certain information visible or measurable. Indicators serve to track processes, evaluate states, or identify developments that cannot be directly observed. The observable characteristics are clearly defined (e.g., the number of kilometers cycled per week).

An indirect quotation (also called a paraphrase) is the rendering of someone else's thoughts in one's own words. It appears in the text without quotation marks and absolutely requires a correct source citation to avoid plagiarism.

An indirect quotation (also called a paraphrase) is the rendering of someone else's thoughts in one's own words. It appears in the text without quotation marks and absolutely requires a correct source citation to avoid plagiarism.

Individuality refers to a person's uniqueness and distinctiveness. It encompasses the totality of personal traits, character features, talents, values, and experiences that set us apart from other individuals and shape us into distinct personalities.

In research, inductive means drawing conclusions about general theories and laws from specific observations or individual cases. It is a ‘bottom-up’ approach in which data is collected to identify patterns and develop new theories from them. This method is frequently used in qualitative research to gain new insights.

Inductive codes are developed directly from the collected material, for example interview transcripts. The data are read openly and criteria are named in a bottom-up way, without a rigid prior scheme.

In content analysis, inductive means that the categories are developed directly from the text material itself.

See inferential statistics.

Inferential statistics, also called deductive or inductive statistics, is a branch of statistics that uses data from a sample to draw conclusions about a wider population. While descriptive statistics only describes data, inferential statistics assesses whether the results found can be generalised. For inferential conclusions to be mathematically correct, the sample must represent the population, for example through true random selection, and must meet certain mathematical parameters such as normality. Because these are probabilistic statements, two types of error can occur in hypothesis tests: type 1 error and type 2 error. To check the validity of statements and quantify uncertainty, inferential statistics essentially uses two pillars: parameter estimation and hypothesis testing.

Influence analysis is used to find out whether one variable could causally influence another, for example the effect of sex on income. The best-known analysis methods are contingency tables, correlation analysis, regression analysis and mean comparisons. The statistical procedure used depends on the measurement level of the data.

See independent variables.

In empirical research, especially in psychology, demand characteristics describe the conscious or unconscious cues in an experimental situation through which participants infer what behaviour is expected of them. Their influence can distort the validity of a study.

Informal interviews are relaxed conversations adapted to the situation, for example a short street interview.

see interviewee.

Information can be understood as a subset of knowledge. It is also referred to as subjectively relevant knowledge. Thus, for example, the relationship status of a prominent person is certainly knowledge (in this case a fact), but for me personally it is completely irrelevant, and therefore not information (for me).

Informed consent is a fundamental ethical and legal principle in research. It states that participants must be fully informed about the aims, procedures, risks and rights before taking part, and must give their explicit consent freely and without coercion.

Informed consent is a fundamental ethical and legal principle in research. It states that participants must be fully informed about the aims, procedures, risks and rights before taking part, and must give their explicit consent freely and without coercion.

The distance from the center of the page when the pages are open (bookbinding).

The distance from the center of the page when the pages are open (bookbinding).

see Honesty

Scientific integrity is the ethical foundation of research; it encompasses honesty, transparency, and a sense of responsibility across all phases of scientific work. It serves as the moral compass ensuring that research findings are reliable and that society can place its trust in science.

Intensity analysis is an extended valence analysis. In addition, the identified evaluations are classified according to their intensity. This makes it possible not only to detect evaluative trends, but also to capture how strongly the text material shows a positive or negative tendency.

In quantitative analysis, it is often checked, for example, whether two different people arrive at the same coding result when analysing the same text.

Intercultural communication analyses how people with different linguistic and cultural backgrounds interact with one another in order to avoid misunderstandings.

Intercultural consumer research examines purchasing decisions and consumer behaviour in different cultural contexts as a basis for international marketing.

Intercultural educational research focuses on the challenges and opportunities of linguistic and cultural diversity within educational institutions, for example through international migration.

Intercultural management, by contrast, examines in business studies the influence of culture on leadership, working behaviour and international teams.

Intercultural research examines and compares different cultural groups in order to understand how cultural factors shape ways of thinking, social practices and behaviour. These groups may be located in different countries or within the same country. Its aim is to analyse cultural differences and similarities in order to improve coexistence, communication and interaction in a globalised world. Intercultural research often builds on international research. It helps minimise friction that arises, for example, when international teams work together or when multinational companies merge. A well-known theoretical foundation is provided by cultural dimensions research, for example that of Geert Hofstede. Important fields of application include intercultural communication, intercultural management, educational research and consumer research.

Interdisciplinarity in science means the collaboration of different disciplines. Methods, theories, or findings from various fields are combined to solve complex questions that could not be adequately answered from the perspective of a single discipline.

Interlibrary loan is a library service that allows users to order books, journals, or articles from other libraries if they are not available in their local library. Libraries collaborate through regional and international library networks to make literature available for academic, professional, or private purposes.

Internal consistency is a measure of the reliability of scientific measurement instruments, such as questionnaires or psychological tests. It indicates the extent to which the individual questions or tasks (so-called items) of a test are related in terms of content and measure the same underlying trait (e.g., intelligence or stress).

International research refers to scientific projects and developments in which actors from different countries cooperate or which are organised across national borders. It serves to solve global challenges and to pool resources and expertise. “International” means between states, connecting peoples across borders, or spanning two or more nations. The term describes everything that is not limited to a single country but concerns several countries, states or their citizens. To describe the extent of cross-border activity more precisely, related terms such as multinational, supranational and global are often used. The core areas of international research are international cooperation, cross-border topics and comparative studies. In international cooperation, researchers from different countries or institutions work together on a question, for example within the framework of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Cross-border topics are research subjects that are inherently international, such as international law, global climate change or the world market economy. Comparative studies involve analysing and comparing data, systems or legal orders from different states. Thanks to international research, global problems—from pandemics to the energy transition—that do not stop at national borders and require international teams can be addressed. In this way, international complexity is managed. Excellence and innovation are also supported, because the worldwide exchange of ideas demonstrably improves the quality and innovative capacity of science. Finally, resources are limited: large projects, for example in particle physics or space exploration, are often so costly and complex that they can only be realised through international funding and shared infrastructure.

Internet sources are digital, publicly accessible contents on the internet that are used as references in academic papers, essays, or reports. These include online articles, blog posts, institutional websites, PDF documents, studies, and specialist reports. They are contents that exist primarily or exclusively in digital form.

Interpretative / hermeneutic research is a qualitative school of thought and focuses on understanding meaning, language and actions (e.g. through hermeneutic text analysis).

Interpretative analysis, or the interpretative interview, is a qualitative research format in which the researcher does not rigidly follow a questionnaire, but places the interviewee at the centre so that they can freely tell their own stories. The aim is to understand the meaning and structures of meaning in what is said. It is often based on a guided interview.

See analytical code.

see interpretative analysis.

Intersectionality and diversity examine how cultural belonging intersects with other factors such as gender, social status or age. This prevents entire populations from being homogenised.

An interview is a planned, purposeful conversation between two or more people. Its aim is to exchange and record information, opinions, experiences or specialist knowledge on a specific topic. The interviewer leads the conversation, while the interviewee responds. An interview is a specific form of qualitative interview, for example a guide-based interview or an expert interview. The difference lies mainly in the degree of structuring and the type of analysis. Surveys can be carried out orally or in writing, whereas interviews are a personal or virtual face-to-face conversation, or sometimes a telephone conversation, between interviewer and interviewee. Likewise, in terms of purpose, the interview addresses specific topics. Surveys seek subjective opinions, attitudes, motives and deeper causes. Interviews make it possible to explore the interviewee’s perspective in depth and to include non-verbal signals such as body language or tone of voice in the analysis.

Interviews can be distinguished according to the degree of structuring, the methodological aim, the setting and the field of application. Depending on the degree of structuring and the type of questioning, different formats are distinguished: structured, semi-structured or unstructured interviews.

see interviewee.

see interview format.

In research, the interviewee is the person who answers a researcher’s questions as part of an empirical data collection process. As the subject of the study, they provide the primary data for qualitative or quantitative research.

In research, the interviewer is the person who asks questions as part of an empirical data collection process in order to obtain qualitative or quantitative data. The exact role depends heavily on the type of interview used.

Interviews conducted personally and not made public are primary sources used for one’s own data collection. As they are not accessible to outsiders, they do not appear in the bibliography. They are cited only in the text. At minimum, the name of the interviewee, the indication “personal interview”, and the date are required.

The introduction is the entrance to your academic work. It piques the reader's interest, introduces the topic in the form of theses, and defines the specific framework. The goal is to give the reader a clear overview of the research question, methodology, and main argument of the work within a few minutes. A classic introduction comprises about 5%, no more than 10%, of the total length. For a 40-page thesis, this translates to approximately 2 pages of introduction.

see self-observation.

The ISBN is the International Standard Book Number and identifies individual books and other standalone media. It usually consists of 13 digits and is often printed as an EAN barcode. It encodes the country prefix, publisher number, individual title number, and a check digit.

The ISSN is the International Standard Serial Number and identifies serial or periodical publications such as newspapers, magazines, journals, or scholarly series. It consists of 8 digits separated by a hyphen, followed by a check digit.

The term "italics" refers to cursive typefaces. It is a typeface that slants to the right and visually resembles human handwriting. It serves as a display font in typography.

The iterative process means that by looking at the data from different perspectives, new questions arise that lead to further analyses. Finally, noticeable deviations that were not expected in advance are identified and analysed.

see Impact Factor

Job interviews should be used scientifically and normally follow the interview scheme. They can also be conducted in a structured, semi-structured or unstructured way.

Journals are periodical publications that appear regularly, usually at least four times a year, and are aimed at a specialist readership: experts, researchers, or professionally interested readers. They provide in-depth information, research findings, or practical reports from specific disciplines such as medicine, law, technology, or economics. They serve scholarly communication, professional information exchange, and continuing education. Academic journals often undergo peer review to ensure quality.

Journals are periodical publications that appear regularly, usually at least four times a year, and are aimed at a specialist readership: experts, researchers, or professionally interested readers. They provide in-depth information, research findings, or practical reports from specific disciplines such as medicine, law, technology, or economics. They serve scholarly communication, professional information exchange, and continuing education. Academic journals often undergo peer review to ensure quality.

see Impact Factor

Justified text is a text alignment in which the lines of a paragraph are made exactly the same width. This creates a clean, straight margin on both the left and right sides.

see Main quote

A keynote, or keynote speech, is the central opening or main lecture at a conference or academic event. It is given by a recognised expert to present the main questions, current trends, or new interdisciplinary perspectives and to set the tone for the event.

see Keynote

Following the text of the abstract, 3-5 keywords are usually listed to facilitate indexing in databases. This is mandatory for research articles and scientific publications, but for theses, it depends on institutional regulations and the reviewers.

Knowledge is the totality of facts, theories, rules and skills that individuals or groups use to solve problems. It is characterised by a high degree of certainty and is regarded as a true, justified belief. Thus, knowledge is not only true for the individual (subjectively), but also for the general public (objectively). Unlike belief or conjecture, knowledge is verifiable and rationally grounded.

When experts, for example in science, IT or medicine, pass their knowledge on to laypeople or to departments outside their field, important details are often lost. This is called a knowledge transfer problem.

see qualitative content analysis according to Kuckartz

A laboratory experiment is a scientific investigation carried out in an artificial and controlled environment. Researchers deliberately manipulate certain factors, that is, independent variables, in order to measure their direct effect on other factors, that is, dependent variables, and thus demonstrate clear cause-and-effect relationships. Confounding factors and external influences are minimized to increase accuracy (high internal validity). The environment is artificial and usually does not reflect everyday life. The precise experimental setup allows the study to be replicated exactly under the same conditions.

see controlled observation

Laboratory research is a scientific investigative method in which hypotheses are tested under strictly controlled, artificial conditions (usually in a laboratory). It serves to precisely observe, measure and analyse causal relationships without disruptive environmental influences distorting the results. Unlike in field research, the researcher can influence environmental conditions such as light and temperature.

In academic writing, a lack of clarity implies a lack of coherence and structure. It makes it difficult for readers to follow the central thread, grasp key arguments, and assess the academic quality of the work.

A Law is a binding legal norm that lays down abstract and general rules for human coexistence. In law, a distinction is made between a formal statute, adopted by Parliament through the legislative process, and a material statute, meaning any substantive rule with external effect.

Lawfulness and transparency mean that there must be a legal basis for collecting and publishing data. Explicit consent or the fact that the data is being processed in fulfilment of a contract would be possible examples. It is important that the data subject is fully informed before giving consent or signing a contract about how, for what purpose, and why their data is used, and what rights they have as a data subject.

A suggestive question is a question whose wording, for example through assumptions, emphasis or group pressure, unconsciously steers the respondent towards the answer expected by the questioner. In science, for example in empirical social research or psychology, it is considered a methodological error because it systematically distorts the reliability and validity of the data.

A legal norm, also called a legal provision or rule, is a generally binding rule enforced by the state and used to organise social coexistence. It attaches a legal consequence to a specific set of facts. Legal norms are general and abstract, meaning they apply to an indefinite number of people and situations. Types of legal norms include, for example, laws (legal texts enacted by parliament, e.g., the German Civil Code), statutory instruments (issued by the executive branch, e.g., traffic regulations), and bylaws (enacted by self-governing bodies).

see Legal norm

see Legal norm

see Short report

see Commentary (journal articles)

see Commentary (journal articles)

Libraries are primarily distinguished by their target group, their mission, and their holdings. The most important categories in library science are public libraries (for the general public), academic libraries (for research and teaching), special libraries (for specific subject areas), as well as national libraries and private libraries.

Katalog (Bibliothek) Catálogo de biblioteca

The life course analysis method, often carried out as a narrative or biographical interview, is a qualitative research format in which the researcher asks the interviewee to tell their own life story freely and coherently. The aim is to reconstruct subjective patterns of meaning, individual developmental patterns and social influences on the life path, rather than merely collecting isolated data. It is based on the in-depth interview.

A Likert scale is a very specific form of scale question designed especially to measure the degree of agreement or disagreement with a particular statement. It always measures attitudes, opinions or beliefs and is characterised by very specific rules: statements instead of questions, degrees of agreement and the classic stepwise structure. By using statements rather than questions, it works with preformulated statements called items instead of open questions, for example “The device is intuitive to use.” Respondents must then state how strongly they agree or disagree with that statement. A genuine Likert scale often has five points: “Strongly disagree”, “Disagree”, “Neither agree nor disagree”, “Agree” and “Strongly agree”. Odd-numbered scales, for example 5 or 7 points, provide a neutral middle option, which leaves room for genuine neutrality, but suffers from the tendency-to-centre problem. The main issue with this golden middle, that is, the neutral middle category such as “neither nor”, is the so-called central tendency. Many respondents use this option as a convenient escape when they cannot or do not want to decide, which distorts the informative value of the data. By contrast, even-numbered scales, for example 4 or 6 points, without a neutral middle, force respondents to take a position, either agree or disagree. However, they can be frustrating when someone is genuinely neutral.

In a scientific context, a limitation (from the Latin *limes*, meaning "boundary") refers to methodological or substantive constraints within a research project. It openly identifies factors that affect the significance, validity, or generalizability of the results obtained.

Line spacing is the vertical distance between the baselines of successive lines of text. It is usually measured as a percentage of the font size or in points (pt) and is intended to improve the readability of the text.

Linguistic equivalence considers metaphors and idioms to be real minefields in research questions. Grammatical structures, metaphors, wordplay or idiomatic expressions can rarely be transferred literally.

A list of figures is a systematic directory in academic works that lists all the figures used (such as graphs, diagrams, photos, or maps) in the order in which they appear in the text. It usually includes the figure number, a brief caption, and the corresponding page number. As with all other lists, this allows readers to search for specific visual representations without having to leaf through the entire work. A list of figures acts as a kind of "map" for the visual elements and underscores the formal professionalism of an academic work. Additionally, it demonstrates at a glance how many and what kind of data and illustrations were used to support the author's arguments.

A list of formulas is a systematic index in academic or technical papers that lists all mathematical equations, models, and formulas used. It usually contains the formula number, a short description, and the corresponding page number in the document.

A list of legal sources is a separate directory in academic works that lists all laws, regulations, EU directives, and international treaties used. It serves to improve clarity and clearly distinguishes the actual legal foundations from the secondary legal literature (books, articles). Readers should be able to quickly find the legal norms used and understand the specific version (statement of the law) in which the law was applied. Since laws are usually cited in the text only by their section number (e.g., § 242 BGB), the directory compiles the full title, the date of promulgation, and the date of the last amendment. The list of legal sources generally follows a clear subject-specific or hierarchical structure.

A list of sources refers more specifically to the actual raw material of the research. This includes, for example, primary texts, that is, the work of a particular author being analysed, as well as qualitative and quantitative data such as interviews, questionnaires, tables, or websites. It is the systematic list at the end of a scholarly work that fully details all sources used (books, articles, websites, interviews). It serves to prevent plagiarism and to allow readers to verify the information used.

A list of symbols lists all symbols used in a academic or technical paper (e.g., variables, formula symbols, mathematical indices) alphabetically and explains their meaning and the unit of measurement used. It is usually found directly after the table of contents and list of figures.

A List of tables is a systematic list in scientific or extensive works that enumerates all tables used. It typically includes the table number, the exact title (the table caption), and the corresponding page number. It provides the reader with a quick, concise overview of the data and graphical representations contained in the document. The reader can search specifically for certain data sets or overviews without having to browse through the entire document. In academic papers (such as term papers, bachelor's or master's theses), this is considered standard practice for structured work.

Literal transcription, also called word-for-word transcription, is most often used in interviews, for example in market research or for academic theses. Its aim is to make the spoken language readable without distorting its meaning. To do this, dialects are transferred into the standard language, and colloquial speech is usually smoothed slightly. Colloquial speech is usually smoothed out gently (e.g., "gonna" or "gotta" becomes "going to" or "got to"). If, for example, someone says, "I mean, I don’t know, I think it’s, like, actually pretty good, innit?" ), then it will be transcribed as "Yes, I think that’s actually really good." .

A literature review, also called literature analysis or secondary research, is an independent scientific method in which already published texts and studies are evaluated instead of collecting data oneself, for example through surveys or experiments. The aim is to capture the state of research, compare theories and identify gaps. A literature review and a content analysis are two different scientific methods for obtaining and evaluating information. The literature review serves to capture the current state of research. Existing publications such as books and specialist articles are searched for, reviewed and structured in order to build a theoretical basis for one’s own work or summarise the state of knowledge on a topic. Content analysis, by contrast, is a systematic empirical method. It is used to evaluate the material itself, for example interview transcripts, newspaper articles or social media posts, according to predefined rules and categories in order to measure and analyse patterns, frequencies or meanings. In short: in a literature review, one reads and evaluates what others have already written; in content analysis, one systematically evaluates selected material in order to gain new empirical insights.

A literature review, also called literature analysis or secondary research, is an independent scientific method in which already published texts and studies are evaluated instead of collecting data oneself, for example through surveys or experiments. The aim is to capture the state of research, compare theories and identify gaps. A literature review and a content analysis are two different scientific methods for obtaining and evaluating information. The literature review serves to capture the current state of research. Existing publications such as books and specialist articles are searched for, reviewed and structured in order to build a theoretical basis for one’s own work or summarise the state of knowledge on a topic. Content analysis, by contrast, is a systematic empirical method. It is used to evaluate the material itself, for example interview transcripts, newspaper articles or social media posts, according to predefined rules and categories in order to measure and analyse patterns, frequencies or meanings. In short: in a literature review, one reads and evaluates what others have already written; in content analysis, one systematically evaluates selected material in order to gain new empirical insights.

see Review article

see literature review.

what the person actually experienced in the past

In science, logic is the formal study of correct, rational, and consistent reasoning. It provides the methodological framework for deriving necessarily valid new insights from given assumptions (premises), independent of specific content.

Logical argumentation involves supporting scientific theses through lines of reasoning that are comprehensible, coherent, and methodologically sound. It requires the rigorous linking of premises (foundational assumptions) to a conclusion—a process free from contradictions and based on solid evidence. An argument consists of premises and conclusions.

Logical statements lack empirical content; due to their formal structure, they are fundamentally true or fundamentally false. A distinction is made between tautological statements and contradictory statements.

Logistic regression is a statistical procedure used to predict the probability of a binary event, for example yes/no, true/false, occurs/does not occur. Instead of calculating exact values as in linear regression, the S-shaped model assigns each data point a value between 0 and 1, which corresponds to a probability from 0% to 100%.

The reproduction of a protected work in a substantial or even complete form, included in an academic text for explanatory purposes. It is permitted only in very restricted circumstances and requires substantive justification.

conducted over longer periods of time

The absolute classic in design and text templates. It is meaningless, pseudo-Latin gibberish, whose letter distribution resembles natural language.

The lost-in-translation phenomenon describes the communication loss that occurs when information, meanings or emotional nuances are translated from one language, culture or academic discipline into another. It goes beyond mere literal translation and includes the failure of a complete transfer of meaning.

see Vertical behavioural analysis.

In academia, a main quote (also core or key quote) is the central, programmatic quote that succinctly summarizes the main thesis, the theoretical foundation, or the guiding principle of a text, chapter, or research project and serves as a common thread

n experimental research, manipulation refers to the deliberate and controlled alteration of a specific influencing factor (the so-called independent variable) in order to test its effect on the object of study.

The intentional manipulation of data, studies, or models carries negative connotations in both everyday language and ethical terms. This encompasses scientific misconduct in the form of data falsification, cherry-picking, and undue influence. Data falsification: Inventing or deliberately altering measured values. Cherry-picking: Selectively omitting data that do not fit one's own hypothesis in order to achieve the desired result. Undue influence: Study sponsors influence the study design or interpretation to advance economic or political interests.

MANOVA is short for multivariate analysis of variance. It is a statistical procedure used to test differences in means between different groups when several dependent variables are considered at the same time. It is the multivariate extension of classical ANOVA.

Manufacturer information, or manufacturer specifications, are specific data, descriptions, or technical specifications published directly by a company or producer about a product, service, or technology. In academic work they often serve as important primary sources, for example for technical details, ingredients, software features, or official prices.

see Manufacturer information

see Qualitative content analysis according to Mayring

Mean comparisons, for example using a t-test, check whether the means of two groups differ significantly in a given variable, for example test scores between group A, the training group, and group B, the control group.

A measure of location, also understood as central tendency, indicates the “average” or centre of the data. This includes the arithmetic mean, the median or the mode. The median is the exact middle value that divides the data into two equal halves. The mode, also called the modal value, is the value that occurs most often.

see Measure of location

A measure of dispersion or variability shows how strongly the data spread around the mean. The standard deviation, variance and range are used for this.

The median is the exact middle value that divides the data into two equal halves.

In science, the term memo, short for memorandum, has different meanings depending on the field. Most often it refers to a research memo in empirical social research or a position paper.

A meta-analysis is a statistical procedure that combines the quantitative results of several independent studies on the same research question. Rather than conducting a new study, an overall effect, or meta-result, is calculated from the data of all existing studies. This greatly increases the explanatory power and reliability of the results. Typical areas of application are medicine, psychology, education and economics. A literature review evaluates the state of research qualitatively or narratively in order to structure topics and answer research questions. A meta-analysis, by contrast, is a purely statistical method within a systematic review that combines quantitative data from several studies to calculate an overall effect.

MetaGer is a privacy-friendly metasearch engine operated by the non-profit organization SUMA-EV in cooperation with Leibniz University Hannover. The service focuses on privacy, transparency, and sustainability.

A metasearch engine is a search engine that does not index or store its own web content. Instead, it forwards your search query to multiple external search engines simultaneously, collects the results, summarizes them, and presents them in a consolidated list of results.

A method (from the Ancient Greek méthodos = ‘the way to something’) is a planned, structured procedure for achieving a specific goal or gaining insight. Essentially, it answers the question of ‘how’.

see Data analysis method

see Data collection method

see Manipulation (methodological)

A methodology is the systematic framework and the entirety of theoretical approaches, rules, and procedures applied in a scientific work. It defines how knowledge is gained in order to answer the research questions in a sound and comprehensible manner. It plays a central role in scientific work. The methodology, together with the analysis including results and discussion, typically comprises 40 to 60% of the work. A precise division of the respective areas is generally not possible, as it depends heavily on the chosen methodology.

A methodology article (methodology/methods paper) is a scholarly article that introduces a new or significantly improved method—or demonstrates how an existing method can be applied or adapted in an innovative way. Many publishers define methodology articles as medium-length, peer-reviewed contributions (often around 2,500–4,000 words) that document the further development of existing procedures or a new methodological approach, demonstrating an advance over the status quo.

A methodology article (methodology/methods paper) is a scholarly article that introduces a new or significantly improved method—or demonstrates how an existing method can be applied or adapted in an innovative way. Many publishers define methodology articles as medium-length, peer-reviewed contributions (often around 2,500–4,000 words) that document the further development of existing procedures or a new methodological approach, demonstrating an advance over the status quo.

see Methodology article

see Methodology article

see Primer

A pre-test is a trial run of data collection. The minimal sample refers in this context to a small, non-representative test group, usually five to twenty people, used to check and optimise questionnaires, experiments or procedures before the main study for comprehensibility, errors and time required.

A misinterpretation is an incorrect reading or a misunderstanding. It occurs when a statement, behaviour, text, or event is understood differently than intended or differently from the facts. Personal biases or incomplete information often play a role in this.

In science, missing data refers to values, data points or variables that are unexpectedly absent from an empirical dataset. They arise through measurement errors, technical failures, skipped questions or refusal to participate, which can reduce statistical power and lead to bias.

Mixed methods refers to the combination of qualitative and quantitative research methods within a single study. The aim is to use the strengths of both approaches and answer complex questions better than would be possible with a single method. Mixed methods can appear in different research designs: the triangulation design, the sequential design and the embedded design.

The MLA citation style, from the Modern Language Association, is an American style based primarily on in-text citations rather than footnotes. It is used mainly in language and literary studies. It uses an author-page system, that is, surname and page, to match sources in the bibliography (Works Cited). Its main feature is brevity, often without a comma between the name and the page. If the author is named in the sentence, only the page follows, for example according to Müller… (23). Here too, if there are two authors, both are named, for example Müller and Schmidt 45; from three onwards, the name of the first author is followed by et al., for example Müller et al. 112. If there is no author, the shortened title of the work may be used, for example “Title of the source” 48. If no page number is available, the chapter is often used, for example Müller ch. 3, or the paragraph, for example Müller para. 4. Direct quotations are placed in quotation marks, followed by the reference before the full stop. Indirect quotations are preceded by cf. when the focus is strongly on paraphrase. For online sources, the author is given first and the URL appears in the reference list.

See mode.

The mode, also called the modal value, is the value that occurs most often.

Should the group discussion be structured or rather unstructured? The more structured the process is intended to be, the more important the moderator’s role becomes. In that case, they become the discussion leader and must get the conversation going and keep it going. They should also encourage as many participants as possible to express their views. Finally, they should also visualise the work results. If a moderator is used, certain strategies should be taken into account. Moderators should ask rather than tell. They should paraphrase or restate more sharply and pointedly when necessary. To maintain the thread of the discussion, it is helpful to summarise what has been discussed so far. One of the biggest mistakes moderators make is judging and evaluating. This should be avoided at all costs. One should always keep in mind that the group is not the enemy and that it is not necessary to fight against the group. The moderator must also ensure that it remains a free discussion.

Eine Monografie ist eine wissenschaftliche Einzelschrift, die ein eng umrissenes Thema, ein spezifisches Problem oder eine Fragestellung umfassend, detailliert und systematisch behandelt. Im Gegensatz zu einem Sammelband, der Beiträge verschiedener Autoren zusammenfasst, stammt eine Monografie meist von einem einzelnen Autor oder einem festen Autorenteam, die eine zusammenhängende Argumentation entwickelt. Sie erscheint als eigenständiges Buch (oder E-Book).

A monograph is an academic work that deals comprehensively, in detail, and systematically with a narrowly defined topic, a specific problem, or a particular research question. Unlike an edited volume, which brings together contributions by different authors, a monograph usually comes from a single author or a fixed team of authors developing a connected argument. It appears as a stand-alone book or e-book.

A monospaced typeface, also called fixed-width, non-proportional, or monospaced font, is a font in which every character occupies exactly the same horizontal space, as with Courier. Whether it is a wide “m” or a narrow “i”, the character width is always identical.

Multinational refers to several sovereign countries or is used for large corporations with a worldwide presence.

Multiple regression is a statistical procedure used to examine and predict the influence of two or more independent variables, also called influence factors or predictors, on a dependent variable or target variable.

Mehrfachnennung selección múltiple

Multiple-Choice-Fragen preguntas de opción múltiple

Mulitvariate Analyse análisis multivariante

Multivariate Varianzanalyse análisis multivariante de varianza

In academic writing, these abbreviations usually mean “no indication”, for example no author, no place, or no year, depending on the context. In some contexts, it may also stand for open access, meaning free access to literature.

In academic writing, the abbreviation n.d. usually means “no date” and is used when citing according to common systems such as APA if a source, for example a website, does not state a year of publication. It also means “no year” and is used in the bibliography or footnotes when the formal year of publication cannot be established for a source.

In academic writing, the abbreviation n.d. usually means “no date” and is used when citing according to common systems such as APA if a source, for example a website, does not state a year of publication. It also means “no year” and is used in the bibliography or footnotes when the formal year of publication cannot be established for a source.

A naive observation, often equated with everyday observation, is an unsystematic and spontaneous perception strongly shaped by personal expectations, unconscious filters or prejudices. It corresponds to an everyday, uncritical view of the world and does not meet the strict criteria of scientific methods. It serves as a way of orienting oneself in the world. It is not scientific in nature, but usually routine and unreflective. As such, it is often the basis for unjustified prejudices.

how the story is constructed now in the interview

Narrative analysis, or analysis of narratives, is a qualitative analysis method based on the idea that people structure their experiences and identity in the form of stories. Instead of breaking data down into small categories, it examines stories holistically, looking at their structure, internal logic and social meaning. The analysis is usually carried out in a process-transforming way, meaning that it moves step by step from the raw text to structure and finally to deep psychological or social meaning.

Narrative analysis, or analysis of narratives, is a qualitative analysis method based on the idea that people structure their experiences and identity in the form of stories. Instead of breaking data down into small categories, it examines stories holistically, looking at their structure, internal logic and social meaning. The analysis is usually carried out in a process-transforming way, meaning that it moves step by step from the raw text to structure and finally to deep psychological or social meaning.

In academic usage, this refers to a mode of account or interpretation that organises and simplifies complex facts. It serves as a shared interpretive frame that gives coherence to values, emotions, and data.

see Narrative Review

A narrative review (also known as a narrative literature review) is a form of scientific publication that summarizes the current state of research on a specific topic. Unlike other formats, it relies primarily on the authors' expertise and argumentation to present the literature in a descriptive manner.

A narrative review (also known as a narrative literature review) is a form of scientific publication that summarizes the current state of research on a specific topic. Unlike other formats, it relies primarily on the authors' expertise and argumentation to present the literature in a descriptive manner.

National libraries are the national memory of a state. They comprehensively collect and permanently preserve all publications appearing in a country. Access to these libraries is usually strictly regulated. In Germany, this is the German National Library; in Austria, it is the Austrian National Library.

A natural experiment is an empirical observational study. The assignment of people to the experimental and control groups is not made by the researcher or by chance, but by external natural or political events that resemble a random experiment. The aim is to study phenomena that, for ethical or practical reasons, cannot be manipulated in the laboratory or in the field. The main difference between a field experiment and a natural experiment lies in the degree of control the researcher has over the situation and the variables. In a field experiment, the researcher actively intervenes by manipulating one or more independent variables in order to observe their effect. In a natural experiment, by contrast, the researcher cannot actively manipulate or control the situation. They make use of an event that has happened on its own and observe its effects. The experimental and control groups arise from natural circumstances. The advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment are similar to those of a field experiment, but even more pronounced.

Natural sciences explore the living and non-living world. They are largely empirical, relying on observation, measurement, and experimentation. Examples include physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy.

Naturalistic observation, also called field observation, is a research method in which scientists study the behaviour of people or animals in their usual environment without manipulating variables or intervening. The aim is to capture genuine, unaltered behaviour.

Newspapers are periodical printed publications that inform a broad public about current events. They are characterised by timeliness, public accessibility, periodicity, and universality, that is, the range of topics such as politics, business, and sport. They serve as a source of information about current affairs, public opinion, and political, social, and everyday history.

In academic writing, "no stimulating additions" means avoiding rhetorical questions, humour, metaphors, and emotional or promotional language. The text should be factual, objective, and precise so that the information itself takes centre stage and the reader is not emotionally influenced.

Nominal style is a mode of expression in which actions, processes, or qualities are expressed not through verbs (action words) but through nouns (substantives)—a process known as nominalization. In academia, it serves primarily to condense information, lending texts an objective, precise, and formal tone.

Non-participant observation is an empirical research method in which researchers observe events or people from the outside, without intervening in the situation or becoming part of the group. It is used for objective data collection in order to study human behaviour or phenomena in their natural setting or in the laboratory.

Empirical statements are non-singular if they claim validity across all times and locations. All swans are white.

Normative-analytical research is often used in political science to address normative contributions (such as contract theory approaches) that cannot be empirically tested.

Normative-ontological research deals with questions of “ought” and “good”. It examines norms, values and purposes, rather than merely describing observable facts.

noun-heavy style arises when too many nouns are used (nominal style), making the text stiff and cumbersome. An active or verb-based style is preferable (e.g., "The authors examine..." instead of "An examination was conducted...").

In science, a null finding (or null result) describes an experiment or study that fails to demonstrate the expected effect. It does not mean the measurement failed; rather, it indicates that the working hypothesis must be rejected because no statistically significant relationship exists. Null findings constitute valid scientific work and should also be published.

The null hypothesis, abbreviated H₀, is a fundamental assumption in statistics and science. It states that there is no difference, effect or relationship between two groups, variables or measurements. All observed deviations are attributed purely to chance.

The numerical citation system is a procedure in which sources are marked in the text by numbers in square brackets, for example, or by superscript numbers. These numbers correspond to a numbered list in the reference list at the end of the work. As a rule, numbers are assigned consecutively in the text, starting with for the first source. If a source is used again, its original number is reused. The only difference between direct and indirect quotation is the use of quotation marks in direct quotations. To document the quotation precisely, the page number may be added in brackets, though this is not compulsory, for example [1, p. 41]. If several sources are cited at once, they can be grouped, for example. Its advantages are better reading flow and conciseness. The text is not interrupted by long author names or years. It is also particularly space-saving when many references are used.

Numerical rating scales provide a number line for evaluation.

In science, the quality criterion of objectivity means that the events of an investigation are independent of the person conducting, analysing or evaluating them.

A scientific observation is a systematic, purpose-driven and methodically controlled recording of observable behaviours, events or states. The focus is on the direct observation of human actions, verbal statements, non-verbal reactions such as facial expressions and gestures, and other social features. For an observation to be scientifically accepted, it must be reliable, meaning that different observers arrive at the same result, and valid, meaning that it genuinely measures what it is meant to measure. Because of its closeness to everyday ways of gathering information, observation is regarded as the most original method of data collection.

See ethnographic paradox.

Online surveys reinforce these advantages and offer additional ease of use for both the researcher and the respondent. On the other hand, all advantages can also become disadvantages. When there are several questions or sensitive questions, the willingness to answer or even to take part decreases. In addition, it is difficult to control the sample, since the questions are usually answered anonymously. Online surveys can raise questions about the validity of the results. Older people, for example, may be less accustomed to internet questionnaires, which can lead to biased responses. A related validity problem is the risk of a biased sample, since not everyone has access to the internet.

An abbreviation used to refer back to a work already mentioned earlier in the text.

Open Access refers to free, unrestricted access to scientific literature and research data on the internet. It allows any user to read, download, copy, and reuse scientific articles or books without financial, technical, or legal barriers.

Open Access refers to free, unrestricted access to scientific literature and research data on the internet. It allows any user to read, download, copy, and reuse scientific articles or books without financial, technical, or legal barriers.

Open coding takes place in the first step of text breakdown. The data are read line by line and assigned initial, provisional codes.

Open Data in science refers to the practice of making research data—such as measurements, survey results, source code, or scripts—publicly accessible. This data is made available online free of charge, in a machine-readable format, and with clear usage licenses, allowing third parties to verify, analyse, and reuse it.

In science, Open Methodology entails complete transparency and documentation of the entire research process. It is a key component of Open Science, ensuring that studies are comprehensible, verifiable, and repeatable (reproducible) for other researchers.

In science, Open Methodology entails complete transparency and documentation of the entire research process. It is a key component of Open Science, ensuring that studies are comprehensible, verifiable, and repeatable (reproducible) for other researchers.

Open observation is a scientific data collection method in which the people being observed know that they are part of a study. It is the opposite of covert observation, as the researcher’s intention and presence are transparent to everyone involved.

Open peer review refers to a transparent variant of the classic quality control process in science. Unlike the traditional, often anonymous procedure, the identities of authors and reviewers are disclosed here, or the process is made publicly viewable and open to comment.

Open questions are questions that cannot be answered with a simple “yes” or “no”. They invite the respondent to answer in their own words and in detail, thereby encouraging information exchange and deeper conversation. They do not offer a set of response options as in multiple choice and usually begin with question words such as who, how, what, why, for what purpose or which. The interviewee answers in their own words. As a result, they provide deep insight, qualitative detail and unexpected answers. However, this also makes them more time-consuming to analyse.

see Open peer review

Open Science represents a comprehensive cultural shift in research. The goal is to make the entire scientific process—from the initial idea to publication - freely accessible, transparent, and comprehensible to everyone. The guiding principle is: "As open as possible, as restricted as necessary."

Open Science represents a comprehensive cultural shift in research. The goal is to make the entire scientific process—from the initial idea to publication - freely accessible, transparent, and comprehensible to everyone. The guiding principle is: "As open as possible, as restricted as necessary."

Open surveys usually require a high degree of initiative on the part of the respondent, to which the interviewer responds. This means that the course of the survey may vary depending on the respondent, although that does not mean the survey is arbitrary.

Operationalization refers to the process of making abstract, theoretical concepts measurable. It translates theoretical ideas into observable, measurable variables and actions so that they can be investigated in practice or empirical research.

see Commentary (journal articles)

An opinion interview, or attitude survey, is a qualitative or quantitative data collection method in empirical social research. Its aim is not only to determine facts, but also to capture the subjective attitudes, evaluations, motives and perspectives of the interviewees regarding a specific topic or event. It is based on the narrative interview.

Oral history is a method in historical research in which new oral primary sources are produced through recorded interviews with eyewitnesses. It focuses on everyday life, individual experiences and subjective interpretations of people who often remain invisible in written archives. It is therefore an open interview about particular historical events or periods, complementary to official historiography, and based on the narrative interview.

Oral surveys, for example by telephone or in person, are used when an interviewer reads the questions exactly according to a predetermined script. Unlike written or online surveys, small clarification questions can be asked. If the interviewer answers these questions, care must be taken not to influence the respondent’s answer. CATI, that is Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing, or CAPI, that is Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing, can be used to conduct oral interviews. CATI is a computer-assisted telephone interview in which, for example, AI asks the question and records the answers. CAPI, by contrast, is a face-to-face interview in which the answer is entered directly into a digital device by the interviewer.

see Categorization

see Original research article

An original research article (also known as a full paper) reports for the first time on findings that the authors themselves have collected and analysed. It therefore constitutes a primary source: the data originate from the authors' own experiments, surveys, observations, or analyses—rather than from a summary of other researchers' studies.

Originality means "originality," "uniqueness," and "creative independence." It describes the ability to develop new, unconventional ideas or to give things a distinctive, personal touch, instead of simply copying them. In academic work, originality does not necessarily mean inventing a completely new discipline or making groundbreaking discoveries. Rather, it is about an independent approach, a new perspective, or the synthesis of existing knowledge that makes your contribution as an author visible. It not only promotes academic integrity and scientific progress but also ensures that genuine added value is created for science or society. Originality does not negate the rules of academic work. Original thoughts must always be logically derived and substantiated. Even with original ideas, the methodology and line of reasoning must remain transparent and verifiable for the reader. Originality in academic work does not negate the rules of academic work. The various facets of originality in science can be divided into independent questioning and analysis, methodological approach, and theoretical linkage.

Open Science Framework

OSF Registries are official public registries on the OSF (Open Science Framework) platform, primarily used for the preregistration of scientific studies. They ensure that research processes are documented in a transparent, comprehensible, and tamper-proof manner.

In science, especially in the cultural, social and humanities disciplines as well as sociology, othering denotes a process of social construction. In it, an in-group (“we”) is defined as the social norm, while another group is marked as “deviant”, “foreign” or “different” and is hierarchically devalued or exoticised.

The outer, unprinted, side margin.

An outlier is a measurement or data point that lies clearly outside the range in which most of the other observations are concentrated. It deviates extremely from the expected pattern, which may indicate measurement errors, typing errors, or genuine rare extreme values.

see Perspective paper

Over-interpretation refers to reading too much meaning, depth, or intent into something that was actually meant to be simple or superficial. It involves stepping outside the actual context and going too far. Data, surveys, or test results are overdramatized by drawing sweeping conclusions that the underlying figures do not actually support (e.g., mistakenly viewing a correlation as direct proof of causation).

siehe Over-Interpretation

Every researcher uses theoretical assumptions shaped by their own culture. When researchers enter unfamiliar lifeworlds and also experience culture shock, there is a risk that they judge the unfamiliar as deviant and misinterpret phenomena.

So-called p-hacking refers to the temptation to filter data until a p-value of less than 0.05 is achieved. This practice should be strictly avoided in scientific work.

The page area is the printed area of a page that is surrounded by the white, unprinted margins (called gutters). It includes the main text, images, and tables. A precisely defined page area ensures a harmonious layout, optimal readability, and a uniform appearance.

A panel discussion in academia is a moderated conversation in which experts, researchers, or figures from politics, the media, and society debate controversial topics, research findings, or research-policy issues before a larger audience. It serves knowledge transfer and interdisciplinary exchange.

See helicopter research.

The parallel-test method (or parallel-test reliability) is a statistical procedure used to verify the measurement accuracy and reliability of a scientific measurement instrument. In this process, the same test subjects complete two versions of the same test—versions that are equivalent in content but not identical—in quick succession.

see Parallel-test method

Parameter estimation uses sample data to estimate unknown characteristics of the population, such as the true mean. This is usually done in the form of confidence intervals.

see Indirect Quotation

Participant observation is a qualitative method in empirical social research and ethnography. Researchers actively immerse themselves in the everyday life or social group they are studying in order to understand human action in real situations.

see Collaborative partnerships.

see Collaborative partnerships.

A Latin term meaning “throughout the work”, “in several passages”, or “scattered”. In academic writing, it is used when an idea, argument, or piece of evidence appears in multiple places in the same work rather than at a single precise point. It is only a general indicator and does not replace a specific reference.

Passive constructions are important. Using the first-person singular or plural is frowned upon (at least in Germany). Nevertheless, excessive use of the passive voice creates a sense of distance and impersonality, making the text harder to read.

A patent is an industrial property right for a technical invention, whether a product or a process. It grants the holder the right to prevent others from using the invention for a limited period. In return, the invention is disclosed in detail in the patent specification and made publicly accessible.

Patient libraries are smaller versions of libraries in hospitals for direct access to resources.

The Pearson correlation coefficient measures the linear relationship based on the actual measured values.

see group pressure.

Peer review (assessment by equals) is the most important quality assurance process in science. Before a research paper is published in a professional journal, independent experts (the "peers" or equals) from the same field examine the work for scientific accuracy, methodology, and relevance.

A person interview, often used synonymously with guided or expert interviews in qualitative research, is a primary empirical data collection method. Its aim is to reconstruct an individual’s knowledge, subjective experiences, attitudes or ways of acting and to analyse them scientifically. It is therefore used to sketch a portrait of the interviewee and is based on the biographical interview.

Personal communications are unpublished, non-publicly accessible information. They include private emails, letters, chat messages, text messages, and informal conversations. They may only be cited in academic work when no other publicly accessible source is available.

Data is considered personal when it relates to an identified or identifiable person; This often applies in research even when names are missing, but identification is still possible. This is stipulated in the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR).

A perspective, position, or outlook paper articulates a viewpoint, future challenges, or a direction for the field. Such papers are particularly common in technology- and theory-oriented disciplines.

PESTLE analysis, also called PESTEL analysis, is a strategic management and market research tool. It is used to examine the external macro-environment, typically of a company or institution, but also of any other research object. A PESTLE analysis can include both quantitative and qualitative data, which are usually produced through content analysis or meta-analysis. Its advantage is that existing areas can be removed or new ones added, so it can be adapted to the specific research topic. The acronym stands for six external areas of influence on a company that cannot be directly controlled or influenced: Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal and Environment. Political refers to the analysis of the political environment. Possible topics include government stability, tax policy, trade policy, draft legislation or subsidies. Economic refers to the analysis of the economic environment. Possible topics include inflation, exchange rates, economic growth, unemployment rate or income distribution. Social refers to the analysis of the social or sociocultural environment. Here the focus is on society itself, so topics such as demographic change, education, cultural trends, lifestyle or consumption behaviour can be analysed. Technological refers to the analysis of the technological environment. Example topics include innovation, research and development spending, the degree of automation or technological change. Legal refers to the analysis of the legal environment. Unlike political, this does not analyse draft legislation, but actually applicable laws and rights. These include labour law, consumer protection, competition law, data protection and product safety legislation. Environmental refers to the analysis of the ecological environment. Climate change, sustainability, CO2 targets, disposal requirements or resource scarcity can be topics of analysis.

The phenomenon of emotional alienation describes the feeling of isolation and estrangement people experience when they are in an unfamiliar environment or speaking a foreign language and cannot express themselves authentically.

Phonetic transcription, or sound-based transcription, comes from linguistics and language science. It does not use ordinary letters, but the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). It focuses exclusively on the acoustic realisation of a sound, regardless of spelling. The exact pronunciation is important for linguists, dictionaries, or language learners. This form would not be advisable for other academic work. For example, the word "transcription" would be written as [tʁanskʁɪpˈt͡sjoːn].

Phonetic transcription, or sound-based transcription, comes from linguistics and language science. It does not use ordinary letters, but the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). It focuses exclusively on the acoustic realisation of a sound, regardless of spelling. The exact pronunciation is important for linguists, dictionaries, or language learners. This form would not be advisable for other academic work. For example, the word "transcription" would be written as [tʁanskʁɪpˈt͡sjoːn].

The PICO model, or PICO scheme, is a structured method used especially in evidence-based medicine and the health sciences to formulate precise and answerable research questions. It also serves as an excellent tool for deriving targeted search terms for scientific databases. The word PICO is an acronym for the four central elements that make up a question: Patient/Population/Problem, Intervention, Comparison/Control and Outcome. P refers to the question of who or what constitutes the target group or the problem. It can narrow down age, sex, diagnosis and type of illness. It refers to which measure, therapy or treatment is carried out, for example a specific drug, an operation or a new nursing method. C asks what the intervention is compared with, for example a placebo, standard therapy, no treatment or another professional group. Finally, O asks about the goal or result to be achieved, for example pain relief, reduced mortality or improved quality of life. Depending on the field, there are extensions of the model, such as PICOT, where T stands for time, or PICOS, where S stands for study design.

see PICO model.

A pilot study is a small preliminary trial before a large-scale main study. It serves to test feasibility, methodology and time planning, to identify weaknesses in the research design early, such as unclear survey questions, and thus avoid costly errors in the later main study. A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of the entire study that checks organisational feasibility and procedures. Its focus is on the conduct and logistics of the whole research process. It therefore checks whether recruitment, randomisation, data entry and the running of the intervention work in practice. A pilot study is carried out before the main study, and once the instrument is already in place. Although it is rarely legally required or mandated by examination regulations, it is strongly recommended in the following situations. It is important when new or untested methods are used, that is, when new questionnaires, measurement devices, interview guides or treatment approaches are used in practice for the first time. It is also advisable under uncertain conditions, for example when it is unclear whether the target group will be willing to participate or whether the dropout rate might be too high. Pilot studies help when there is a lack of prior experience, that is, when there are hardly any previous studies on which to build and first trends or effect sizes are needed for later sample size calculations. Finally, if the risk or costs are high, a pilot study should also be conducted. This is the case in large clinical studies or complex market research and IT projects where the failure of the main study must be avoided. Pilot studies can reveal early on whether participants misunderstand questions or whether technical equipment fails. They also make it possible to estimate how much time data collection and analysis will actually take. In addition, they safeguard the scientific quality of the main study, since the final design is based on empirical experience. Because the number of participants is too small, the sample size usually does not allow the pilot study results to be statistically generalised. It is not intended to prove the main hypothesis definitively and does not provide a hypothesis test.

Not only translation, but also back-translation, often contains deceptive pitfalls. When an English term is translated into Japanese and then translated back into English by someone else, the result is often something completely different.

The placement effect, often also called response order effect, refers to how the arrangement of response options within a single question changes response behaviour.

The placement effect, often also called response order effect, refers to how the arrangement of response options within a single question changes response behaviour.

Plagiarism is the unauthorized appropriation of another person's intellectual property, such as texts, ideas, artworks, or research results. It involves presenting the work of others as one's own without citing the original author. Colloquially, this is often referred to as "intellectual theft."

Plagiarism is one of the major infractions in academic writing. It refers not only to the verbatim copying of other people's texts without attribution but also to the adoption of others' ideas, structures, or phrasings without proper citation. This can occur deliberately or unintentionally—for instance, when writing too closely to a source text.

see Response letter (submission)

see Perspective paper

This concerns the utility of research outside the purely academic sphere. It is one aspect of the scientific quality criterion of relevance. It is subdivided into applicability and societal value. Applicability arises when research findings offer solutions to concrete problems (e.g., in business, politics, healthcare, or social work). Conversely, insights that help to better understand or address societal challenges possess societal value.

see Guideline (journal article)

Describes a stage or structure in which linguistic expressions do not yet refer in a concrete way to specific objects or concepts. In academic writing, this means that figures, tables, or formulas should be introduced and explained in the text beforehand.

see screening

A pre-test is the systematic preliminary check of research instruments such as questionnaires, experiments or interviews. It serves to detect errors, misunderstandings, unclear wording or technical problems before the main study begins. It is also the targeted, often qualitative, test of individual data collection instruments, for example questionnaires or interview guides, for comprehensibility and errors. Its focus is on the quality and validity of the questions and the measurement instrument. The aim is to answer the question of whether participants understand the questions as intended and whether there are unclear formulations, confusing response options or problems with handling them. A pre-test takes place before the pilot study, during the questionnaire development phase. In empirical research, pre-tests are broadly distinguished into qualitative and quantitative methods.

see prognostic questions.

Predictive validity is a scientific quality criterion. It indicates how well the results of a test or measurement procedure can predict future behaviour or a specific event (the so-called criterion). Predictive validity is determined quantitatively. To do this, a test is administered at an early stage, and the test result is later compared with the event that actually occurred. The two values are mathematically correlated. The stronger this correlation, the higher the test's predictive validity.

Predictive validity is a scientific quality criterion. It indicates how well the results of a test or measurement procedure can predict future behaviour or a specific event (the so-called criterion). Predictive validity is determined quantitatively. To do this, a test is administered at an early stage, and the test result is later compared with the event that actually occurred. The two values are mathematically correlated. The stronger this correlation, the higher the test's predictive validity.

See independent variables.

The preliminary notes, also called formal sections, consist of the title page, abstract, and the lists of references before the main body of the text. They don't contain much content yet but serve to clarify the structure of the work.

A premise (from the Latin *praemissa* = "that which is put forward") is a fundamental assumption, prerequisite, or basic postulate. It serves as an unquestioned starting point upon which scientific arguments, logical inferences, or theories are built.

Preregistration refers to the advance documentation of research plans. In this process, researchers deposit their hypotheses, study design, sample size, and planned analysis strategy in a public registry before data collection or analysis takes place.

Preregistration refers to the advance documentation of research plans. In this process, researchers deposit their hypotheses, study design, sample size, and planned analysis strategy in a public registry before data collection or analysis takes place.

Prescriptive statements are value judgments, norms, and 'ought' statements. They lack empirical content and therefore cannot be substantiated by empirical research. Example: • Thou shalt not steal!

Primary research begins where existing information is insufficient. Here, original data is collected directly at the source. Because the data is generated specifically for the current research project, this approach is highly individualized.

A Primer or mini-review is a concise overview for specialists or those in related disciplines, and often has a didactic focus.

A PRISMA flow chart is the visual documentation of the systematic study selection process used in scientific work, for example systematic reviews or meta-analyses. The name stands for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. It shows at a glance how many studies were found, screened and ultimately used for the scientific work.

A PRISMA flow chart is the visual documentation of the systematic study selection process used in scientific work, for example systematic reviews or meta-analyses. The name stands for Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. It shows at a glance how many studies were found, screened and ultimately used for the scientific work.

Prisoner libraries are smaller versions of libraries for direct use in correctional facilities.

A private library is an individual collection of books and media owned by a private person or organization. Unlike public libraries, it is not institutionally affiliated, publicly accessible, or profit-oriented. Historically, private libraries were often a sign of status, scholarship, and wealth. In ancient Rome, among the nobility, and in the upper middle class, a well-maintained library was considered de rigueur and served as a knowledge base and status symbol. Many of today's world-renowned state university and regional libraries originated from such historical private collections.

In science, error probability, also called significance level alpha or type 1 error, indicates the probability that a statistical result is due purely to chance. It quantifies the risk of wrongly rejecting a null hypothesis that is actually correct, even though no effect or difference exists.

In science, problem definition is the methodological starting point of all research. It does not simply mean describing a topic, but rather aims to precisely define an existing gap in knowledge or a contradiction. Only through a sound problem definition does scientific originality become possible at all.

The problem-centred interview is a form of guided interview that focuses on the subjective way of dealing with a specific problem, for example a life crisis. It confronts the interviewee with situation-related questions and thus combines open narration with a thematic structure.

In academia, proceedings are the written publications of all scholarly papers, presentations, and abstracts presented at a conference, symposium, or workshop. They document the current state of research and the exchange within a discipline.

In academia, proceedings are the written publications of all scholarly papers, presentations, and abstracts presented at a conference, symposium, or workshop. They document the current state of research and the exchange within a discipline.

In academia, proceedings are the written publications of all scholarly papers, presentations, and abstracts presented at a conference, symposium, or workshop. They document the current state of research and the exchange within a discipline.

Prognostic questions, also called predictive questions, aim to forecast future developments, probabilities or hypothetical scenarios on the basis of historical and current data patterns. Unlike purely descriptive questions, they always look to the future. In science and research, prognostic questions address future trends, effects or hypothetical considerations, often found in future-oriented disciplines such as economics, technology or the social sciences.

see Research proposal

A proportional typeface, for example Arial or Times New Roman, is a font in which each character takes up only the space it actually needs. Wide letters such as “m” or “w” are wider than narrow characters such as “i” or a full stop. As a result, text looks more balanced and is much easier to read.

see Research proposal

In science, prospective, from the Latin prospicere meaning “to look ahead”, means forward-looking or future-oriented. It describes a research design in which researchers formulate a hypothesis and only collect data specifically for that study after it has begun, while the event being studied, for example an illness, has not yet occurred at the start of the study.

A protocol paper (or study protocol) describes the design of a planned study, often focusing on transparency, methodology, and ethics. It is particularly important in clinical and experimental fields.

The term provenance, from Latin provenire (“to come from”, “to arise”), generally denotes in science the origin or source of an object, a person or data. Depending on the discipline, the term has different specific meanings and methods.

A specious argument is a logically invalid or irrelevant argument intended to support a thesis, even though it provides no genuine evidence. In science, they often serve to distract from a lack of evidence or to disguise an unscientific claim through emotional appeals.

Pseudonymization refers to replacing clear identifying characteristics (such as a name) with a pseudonym (e.g., a number or a code). This obscures the direct link to a specific person, but the data can still be associated with a particular individual via the mapping table. Therefore, pseudonymized data generally remains subject to data protection regulations.

see in-depth interview.

Public libraries serve the general public by providing basic access to information, media, and entertainment. Typical locations include city, district, and community libraries. Especially in remote regions, mobile libraries or bookmobiles often serve the population.

see File Drawer Problem

Publication costs (or publication fees) are the charges levied by publishers for the publication of scientific papers, specialist books, or articles. They are a central component of modern scientific publishing. These costs vary significantly depending on the type of publication, the discipline, and the publisher.

Publication duration refers to the total time a text, book, or scientific article takes from initial submission to actual publication (the publication date). In scientific research, this process—which often involves rigorous peer review and revisions—can take anywhere from several months to several years.

see Article Processing Charge (APC)

see Suitability for publication

Publication rules can sometimes seem like a tedious shell surrounding the actual text. In reality, however, they are what make publication possible in the first place. They ensure that submissions are evaluated fairly, correctly attributed, and published in a scientifically reliable manner. This includes the rule that a manuscript may generally only be submitted to one journal at a time. This single rule exemplifies the fact that publishing is a systematic, trust-based process; violating it jeopardizes not just an individual manuscript, but the reliability of the entire system.

Published means that a work has been released through a publisher or media outlet so that it can be purchased or consumed. Depending on the legal framework, it is mandatory for a source to be published. In some countries, mere publication is sufficient.

Purpose limitation states that data may only be used for the purpose for which it was collected.

In purposive sampling, participants are not left to chance but are selected deliberately according to certain predefined criteria. Prior knowledge about the group is used. In groups for a group discussion, selection is often arranged so that social inequalities, hierarchies or social structures become visible.

Qualitative analysis methods are used to systematically analyse non-numerical data such as interview texts, observation records, or audio and video material. Their aim is to understand social phenomena, grasp individual motives and develop new theories. Instead of asking “how much?”, they ask “how?” and “why?”. The basis is coding, whose purpose is to structure spoken language, filter out the essential topics and analyse the text. In principle, coding means grouping content around a theme. Within coding as a qualitative analysis method, codes are primarily distinguished by their origin, their level of abstraction and their function in the analysis process.

Qualitative content analysis according to Udo Kuckartz is one of the most popular and most systematically developed methods for analysing texts, such as interview transcripts, focus groups or documents, in the German-speaking world. Kuckartz places great importance on a controlled, understandable and methodologically guided procedure that allows both qualitative and quantitative steps. It is chosen when many interviews or open-ended responses are to be analysed, when one proceeds exploratorily and when typical features or types are to be derived. It is also often the better choice when qualitative analysis software is used. Kuckartz essentially distinguishes three main forms of content analysis: content-structuring analysis, evaluative analysis and type-building analysis. Content-structuring analysis is the most commonly chosen form. It extracts specific topics, contents or aspects from the material and assigns them to a category system. In evaluative analysis, the material is assessed according to specific criteria, for example “high”, “medium”, “low” or “positive”, “neutral”, “negative”. The aim of type-building analysis is to identify certain types or patterns of people or behaviours in the data material. Kuckartz defines a category, or code, as a “drawer” into which a text passage is placed. It must be clearly defined. The coding guide is the centrepiece of validity: a document in which each category is named, defined and accompanied by a concrete text example, called an anchor example. Memos, on the other hand, are the researcher’s systematic notes throughout the entire process and are important for reflection and documentation.

Qualitative content analysis according to Mayring is a systematic, theory-guided and rule-guided procedure for analysing textual material, such as interview transcripts. Its aim is to structure large amounts of text and reduce them to specific aspects without distorting the content context. At the centre of the method are three different techniques, depending on what is to be done with the data: summary, explanation and structuring. In the summary, the aim is to reduce the textual material by removing irrelevant parts and combining similar statements through successive steps such as paraphrasing, generalising and reducing. Explanation aims to interpret individual, difficult-to-understand passages and make them clearer using additional context information or background material. Finally, structuring filters the text according to previously defined criteria and assigns it to a predefined system of categories, for example by topic area. This form of analysis is chosen when the research question is strongly theory-driven, when one wants to follow a strict rule set and when the supervisor/examiner requires this classic approach. The heart of the analysis is the formation of categories, that is, codes, according to which the text is evaluated. For this purpose, deductive and inductive coding are used.

A qualitative interview is a social science method for collecting subjective opinions, experiences, motives and attitudes. Unlike standardised surveys, it is conducted in an open and flexible way in order to gain a deeper insight into the interviewees’ way of thinking. The sample is usually smaller, but much richer in detail. Qualitative interviews are, in principle, based on open questions, that is, questions without predetermined answer options. These questions revolve around a defined overarching topic. They can be carried out orally or in writing, although the latter is less common. Typically, they do not follow a fixed question-and-answer scheme, since a qualitative interview can also develop into a conversation with follow-up questions. For that reason, the term “interview” is in fact somewhat misleading, because it is not simply a matter of collecting closed responses. The interaction between interviewer and interviewee is regarded as a source of information.

In qualitative pre-tests, the focus is on the understanding and thought processes of the test participants. They are carried out, for example, using the think-aloud technique, also called think aloud, a cognitive interview or an expert interview. In think-aloud, test participants verbalise all their thoughts while completing the questionnaire, which helps uncover unclear wording. The cognitive interview takes place immediately after completion: participants are asked how they understood certain questions and what reflections they made. In the expert interview, specialists or colleagues review the data collection instrument for technical correctness and methodological rigour.

Qualitative research focuses on non-numerical data, such as interviews, observations or text analyses, in order to understand deeper causes, opinions or processes. Qualitative research therefore works with data that cannot be fully predicted by the researcher in advance.

An article must be structured in a way that allows it to withstand peer review—meaning it must present logical arguments, be statistically sound, demonstrate methodological transparency, and be honest about its limitations. This is achieved by meeting the quality criteria of the respective discipline (e.g., traceability, methodological transparency, appropriate statistical analysis).

Quantitative analysis methods are statistical procedures that systematically analyse numerical data. Their aim is to derive robust conclusions from measurable values, for example to identify relationships, compare groups or test hypotheses. Depending on how many variables are considered at the same time, one distinguishes univariate, bivariate and multivariate analyses.

In quantitative pre-tests, the trial run is already conducted with a smaller sample from the later target group. The focus is on statistics and procedure. There are standard pre-tests and behaviour coding. In the standard pre-test, the questionnaire is tested exactly as it will later be used in the main study. It provides data on dropout rate, response distribution and completion time. Behaviour coding involves observers systematically recording whether the interviewer and respondents have problems with certain questions, for example frequent clarification requests or hesitation.

Quantitative research focuses on numerical data, which is analysed through surveys, experiments or statistical analyses. Quantitative research thus works with data that the researcher deliberately collects and defines.

A quantitative survey, also called a poll, is a standardised research method in which data are collected in the form of numbers. Its aim is to study large samples in order to obtain numerical, representative and statistically analysable data. The collection is carried out in a standardised way, usually through closed or multiple-choice questions in large samples. Surveys can generally be designed as open or closed surveys. Typical features of quantitative surveys are the deductive approach, the fixed order and their statistical analysis. The deductive approach means that existing theories or specific hypotheses are to be tested through the survey. Since surveys are typically closed, they generally have a clear order of questions that is asked of all participants in exactly the same sequence. Because quantitative data are collected, it is usually easy to analyse the results using numbers, percentages and averages, for example with tools such as SPSS, R or Excel, through statistical analysis.

see filter question.

In science, a questionnaire is a standardised data collection instrument. It serves to systematically and theory-guided by collect written self-reports, verbal or numerical, about attitudes, behaviour, opinions or psychological characteristics from a large number of people.

Questions about attitudes or opinions focus on your conscious, positive or negative evaluation of a topic. These questions measure how you feel about a particular matter, whether you approve or reject it and what emotions it evokes. They are often based on experiences and are more dynamic.

Questions about beliefs investigate, by contrast, your basic understanding of truth about how you see the world and what you consider true or false. These questions target your deeply rooted mental models of how the world works. They form the cognitive foundation. A belief is often based less on objective facts than on experience and is much more resistant to change than a mere opinion.

A quick-and-dirty pre-test is an informal, pragmatic testing procedure in science and market research. It serves to obtain early feedback on questions, questionnaires or prototypes with minimal time and budget, although methodological standards are often relaxed in favour of speed.

A quota system refers to a mandatory requirement to allocate a specific percentage of goods, positions, participation opportunities, or places to pre-defined groups. It generally serves to correct structural imbalances, establish representation, or manage access to scarce resources.

see Quota Method (Sampling)

Sometimes you have to integrate the quotation into your own sentence structure. Missing words or sentence parts are marked with three dots in square brackets [...].

Sometimes you have to integrate the quotation into your own sentence structure. When words are added to make the sentence grammatically correct, the additions are also placed in square brackets [is]

Clear errors in the original are marked directly after it with [sic!] in square brackets.

A quote within a quote (also called a boxed quote) is the verbatim reproduction of a text passage that itself already contains a direct quote. It is used when citing a source and the original author has another person quoted directly there.

Ragged alignment (also called open line, asymmetrical alignment, or anaxial alignment) is a type of text alignment in typography where the lines are not of equal length. The lines begin on one side (usually the left) exactly on a vertical line (left-aligned), but extend to different lengths on the opposite side.

Raison d'être (French for "reason for being" or "justification for existence") refers in science to the fundamental purpose, justification, or deepest meaning of a scientific discipline, institution, or particular research focus.

see random selection.

see Random selection

In random selection, also called random sampling or randomisation, each person in the target group has exactly the same calculable chance of being selected. This is the case, for example, when software draws 500 people at random from the population register for a survey.

see convenience sample.

Instead of grouping participants or test objects actively, they are assigned to groups at random, for example by drawing lots. In this way, random errors and biases, such as the researcher’s subjectivity, can be balanced out.

see random selection.

The range shows the difference between the smallest and largest value in the data.

Rangordnungsskalen bitten Befragte mehrere Antwortoptionen in eine persönliche Reihenfolge (1. Platz bis 5. Platz) zubringen. Für eine wissenschaftliche Auswertung werden die Ergebnisse der einzelnen Aussagen am Ende häufig zu einem Gesamtwert addiert.

See Spearman correlation coefficient.

Ranking scales ask respondents to place several answer options in a personal order, for example from first to fifth place. For scientific analysis, the results of the individual statements are often later added together to obtain an overall score.

see Short reports

see Scale questions.

To make data compatible and exchangeable, they must be anonymised. In intercultural research, removing context, for example the exact regional location or specific cultural practices, can make the data worthless for local research; or, conversely, combining different data sets can make people re-identifiable again. This creates the re-identification dilemma.

siehe Gerichtsurteil

Recordings usually refer to purely audio or audiovisual documents that do not belong to the classic feature-film or series format. These include podcasts, radio and television broadcasts, audio or video interviews, music tracks, and recordings of lectures or presentations.

In science, redundancy describes the multiple or superfluous presence of information, systems, or data. Depending on the field, this term has a different meaning – from an error in the text to a security feature in research.

In academia, reference collection refers to library materials that may not be borrowed. They are available to users exclusively within the library or institute premises.

Reflexive thematic analysis, often following the standard of Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, is a flexible qualitative analysis approach. Its aim is to identify and interpret patterns or meanings, that is, themes, in data such as interviews, texts or visual material, while understanding and critically reflecting on the active, subjective role of the researchers in interpreting the data as a central part of the process.

The continuous, critical self-reflection on one’s own role, one’s own biases and one’s own emotional experience during the research process is called reflexivity.

see Falsifiability

The aim of regression analysis is to create a mathematical function that can be used to predict the values of one variable from another.

A regulation, or statutory instrument, is an abstract and general legal norm issued by the executive, that is, by the government, ministries, or administrative authorities. It is a law in the material sense, but for its legitimacy it always requires statutory authorisation from Parliament.

Relational questions, often used in coaching, systemic counselling or psychology, are solution-oriented questions that focus on relationships, interactions and the perspectives of others. Rather than asking about isolated problems or causes, they examine how people or situations relate to one another. They clarify how X is connected with Y and measure correlations without proving direct causes, for example: Is there a relationship between income and life expectancy? These questions do not expect yes-or-no answers. Through a change of perspective, the interviewee may be asked to adopt another person’s viewpoint. Finally, they can also be used to place emotions or relationships on a scale. In computing, the term refers to queries that link data from different tables via unique keys, for example in SQL.

A relationship is the general term for any kind of connection between two events or variables.

Relationship analysis is used to determine whether a correlation exists, for example between body weight and ice cream consumption or between study time and exam grades.

Reflections on the content of the research material and its embedding in a broader theoretical framework.

Generally, released means that information, works, or news have been made accessible and known to the public. It is the moment when something moves from a private or internal circle into the public sphere.

Relevance refers to the significance, importance, or pivotal nature of a matter. The term indicates the extent to which a topic, piece of information, or event is pertinent to a specific situation, a decision, or the general public. In academic work, relevance means that your research question, methods, and results provide concrete added value to your field of study or to society.

Relevant questions refer to the link with the survey objective; they are methodologically necessary in order to answer the actual research questions of the survey.

Reliability refers to the consistency and dependability of a measurement. It indicates the formal measurement precision and reproducibility of a study. A measurement procedure or test is considered reliable if repeated application under identical conditions consistently yields the same results and those results are free from random errors. A classic example illustrating a reliable instrument is: - If you step onto a scale repeatedly, it always displays exactly the same weight.

In science, replication is the deliberate repetition of a previously published study or experiment. The overarching goal is to verify whether the original results hold up and if the same conclusions are justified.

A replication study is the scientific repetition of a previously published study. Its aim is to verify the original results and determine whether they are reliable or potentially based on errors, chance, or altered conditions. It is a key tool for quality assurance in science. In science, replication refers to the fundamental process of repeating an experiment or study. A replication study, by contrast, is a specific, independent research project conducted and published for precisely this purpose. It examines whether the results of the original study hold true under identical or altered conditions.

Reports are formal documents that contain structured information, facts, analyses, or research findings on a specific topic. They are often published by companies, public authorities, institutes, or organisations. Unlike specialist journals, they often do not undergo a formal peer-review process.

see Representative selection

A representative selection also helps achieve objectivity. In research, a representative selection (representative sampling) is a subset of the objects of study (people, data, items) that reflects the structure and characteristics of the entire population as accurately as possible. The goal is to be able to reliably generalize results from a small group (sample) to a large group. A representative sample does not necessarily have to be very large, but it must be selected correctly. Nevertheless, the general rule applies: the larger the sample, the lower the sampling error tends to be.

see Representative selection

Research is used to generate knowledge. It is an intensive, systematic and methodical process of seeking insights, causes or solutions that goes beyond mere searching. It is scientifically grounded and aims to fill gaps in knowledge, test theories and solve problems. Unlike analysis, research is the entire systematic process of gaining new insights, whereas analysis is a specific step in which information is methodically broken down and examined. You could think of it like this: research is the entire process of building a house, and analysis is the precise inspection and fitting of the individual building blocks.

A research biography describes a person's scientific career trajectory. It encompasses their entire academic career, including positions held, publications, relevant research stays, and the evolution of their core research areas.

A research design is the methodological blueprint of a scholarly study that determines how a research question is to be answered systematically. It structures planning, data collection, and analysis in order to ensure valid results. The design connects theoretical considerations with practical implementation. The next step involves developing a data collection instrument. Here, a thorough literature review of data collection methods and instruments is again very helpful. The goal is to ensure the validity and reliability of the research instrument.

A research gap refers to an area or a specific question within a field of study that has not yet been investigated—or has been investigated only insufficiently—by existing scholarship. It represents the "blind spot" in the current state of research and serves to justify new research projects.

see Scientific hypothesis

see Short reports

A research problem is an open gap in knowledge, a theoretical contradiction, or a practical problem that is to be solved through systematic research. It forms the scientific starting point of every work, justifies the relevance of the investigation, and defines the scope of the study.

Forschungsexposé (Projektantrag oder Research Proposal) propuesta de investigación

A research question is the central, precise question that a scientific study is intended to answer. It forms the foundation, the “common thread” and the aim of the investigation, guides the choice of methods and the literature review, and defines the scope of the topic. Formulating a research question is often the most difficult part for the researcher. After all, it is the basis of the entire study. Therefore, please do not “cut corners” at this stage and, even if it seems difficult, define the research question correctly.”

See response tendencies.

Response Letter Response letter

The revision process almost always involves a response letter or a point-by-point response. This document is far more than a mere formality; it serves as a written guide showing reviewers and the editorial team exactly what changes were made and how each comment was addressed. Effective response letters are polite, precise, and remarkably understated—qualities that make them truly effective.

A major challenge is response tendencies. In some cultures, it is considered extremely rude to contradict an authority figure, such as the researcher. The result is pure “yes-saying” data. In other cultures, for example in Asia, people often choose the middle point on a scale, while in the United States they tend more towards the extremes. How can this be standardised without distorting the data? The answer is a clear scientific procedure and taking this challenge into account.

see Test-retest method

Depending on the journal, a "Resubmit for review" peer-review decision may even mean that, following major revision, the text will be evaluated again just like a new submission.

see dependent variable.

see results section.

The results section, or results chapter, is the core of an empirical scientific paper. It presents the data collected in an objective and factual manner. The findings are not evaluated or interpreted here; that is the task of the later discussion. Value-neutrality is essential for this chapter. Adjectives such as “surprisingly” or “fortunately” should be avoided. Nor is this the place to explain why a result turned out as it did or what it means in practice. That comes later in the discussion. The results of the study are written in the past tense. Only the study’s own newly collected data are presented in the results section. External literature belongs in the introduction, theoretical framework or discussion.

Retrospective, from the Latin retrospectare, means looking back in science, that is, looking into the past. In a retrospective study or analysis, the events being studied, for example a particular illness, have already occurred, and causes or risk factors are sought retrospectively using already existing data such as medical records or questionnaires.

Review article Review article

A review article is an article that does not collect new primary data but instead systematically gathers, summarizes, and critically evaluates previously published studies on a specific topic. It is therefore a secondary type of article: instead of "We measured…," you encounter phrases such as "This review summarizes…" or "In this review article, we discuss…." Depending on the discipline and the journal, a review article may be structured either narratively (a classic literature review) or systematically (a systematic review, often including a meta-analysis). The common core remains: it tells the story not of a single study, but of an entire field of research.

A "Revise and resubmit" peer-review decision does not signify rejection, but rather an invitation to substantially improve the text and resubmit it.

At the latest, as soon as the data subject requests the deletion of their personal data (right to be forgotten), the data must be erased. In academia, the "right to be forgotten" (Art. 17 GDPR) is severely restricted. The research privilege applies here: If personal data is processed for scientific purposes and its deletion would seriously impair the research objectives, there is no right to immediate deletion.

see Right to be Forgotten

Ein Sammelwerk (oft auch Sammelband oder Herausgeberwerk genannt) ist ein wissenschaftliches Buch, das Beiträge von mehreren verschiedenen Autoren zu einem bestimmten Rahmenthema vereint. Diese Einzelbeiträge (Aufsätze/Kapitel) werden von einem oder mehreren Herausgebern (oft abgekürzt mit Hrsg. oder Hg.) ausgewählt, zusammengestellt und redaktionell bearbeitet. Typische Beispiele für Sammelwerke sind Festschriften, Handbücher, Tagungsbände oder Enzyklopädien.

A sample is a small selected subset of a larger whole, known as the population. It is examined as a stand-in for the whole group in order to draw conclusions when it would be too costly or impossible to record every element.

A sampling design is the structured plan that determines how a smaller, representative sample is drawn from a larger population. It specifies who or what is selected, by which method, and to what extent, so that the results can be generalised to the whole.

Sampling theory is a branch of statistics. It provides the mathematical and methodological foundations for drawing reliable conclusions about a large, usually inaccessible population from a small sample.

Sans serif, from the French for “without serifs”, refers to typefaces such as Arial which, unlike classic Antiqua typefaces, do not have small decorative lines, hooks, or feet at the ends of letters. In English, these are also called sans-serif or plain typefaces.

Sans serif, from the French for “without serifs”, refers to typefaces such as Arial which, unlike classic Antiqua typefaces, do not have small decorative lines, hooks, or feet at the ends of letters. In English, these are also called sans-serif or plain typefaces.

Sans Serif (französisch für „ohne Serife“) bezeichnet Schriftarten, wie z.B. Arial, die im Gegensatz zu klassischen Antiqua-Schriften keine kleinen dekorativen Linien, Häkchen oder Füßchen an den Enden der Buchstaben aufweisen. Im Deutschen werden diese Schriften auch als serifenlose Schriften oder Grotesk bezeichnet.

see Sans Serif

Scale questions, also called rating questions, are an umbrella term for all survey questions in which respondents rate their answers on a given scale. They come in various forms, such as numerical rating scales, visual analogue scales and ranking scales.

Scaling generally means adapting to a new scale. The term derives from the Latin word scalae (stairs/ladder) and essentially describes the enlarging or reducing of things or systems. It defines how the value is measured. (e.g., exact mileage figures, categories such as "never," "rarely," "often")

A scatter plot, also called a scatter graph or dot cloud, is a graphical representation in statistics. It illustrates the relationship or connection between two different metric variables.

School libraries support students in their research and promote reading skills.

Science is everything that ‘creates knowledge’. In other words, it is an organised way of acquiring, expanding and passing on knowledge. To do this, one must familiarise oneself with the body of knowledge in a specialist field and, building on this, create new knowledge (and new products). Science is the totality of findings, theories and experiences.

Scientific (theoretical) relevance is an aspect of relevance in academia; it refers to the contribution a study makes to expanding knowledge within a discipline. This can be achieved by addressing an under-researched gap in the literature (research gap). This includes refuting, confirming, or extending existing theories or models. Finally, applying a new, innovative method or transferring established methods to a new field of research can also serve this purpose.

A scientific hypothesis (i.e. a research hypothesis) is an assumption (thesis) about real facts (empirical content, empirical testability) in the form of conditional statements. They extend beyond a single case (generalisability, degree of generality) and can be refuted by empirical data (falsifiability).

Scientific journal articles (specialist articles) can be categorized into different types based on their content-related function and methodology.

In science, a law, as opposed to a theory, is a descriptive statement based on repeated observation that precisely describes universal regularities in nature under certain conditions, often expressed in a mathematical formula such as F = m · a. Whereas a theory explains why something happens, a law only predicts that it will happen.

see Manipulation (scientific)

Scientific work is a systematic, methodical and objective approach to investigating a research question and gaining new insights. It involves critical, transparent work based on current sources, adhering to standards, and is often applied in academic work such as term papers or dissertations.

The scope of a scientific journal describes its thematic profile. It defines the subject areas, topics, and article types the journal publishes, as well as the target readership it addresses.

A scope mismatch (or thematic/content discrepancy) occurs when the topic, methodology, or theoretical framework of your scientific manuscript does not align with the aims and scope of a scientific journal.

In science, screening is a large-scale systematic and standardised testing procedure. Its aim is to filter out, from a large number of items such as samples, substances or people, those that show certain characteristics, mutations or disease traits. It serves as a highly efficient search method based on the principle of finding the needle in the haystack.

see Digital handwriting script

see Secondary citation

A secondary citation (also second-hand citation) occurs when a statement or a direct quotation is taken from another source (secondary literature) that was not found in the original work itself. In academic writing, the golden rule is: always obtain the original source and cite it directly. A secondary citation is only permitted if the original is no longer available! The reference must clearly indicate that the quotation originates from author A, but was found in the work of author B. This is done using the abbreviation "cited in" (or cited in). In this case, the original source is always mentioned first in the text, followed by the source that was actually consulted. Secondary citation has a special format in the bibliography. Depending on the chosen citation style, either both sources—the original and the work in which the quotation was found—or only the one that was read (the secondary source) are listed.

Secondary literature in academia comprises texts that describe, analyse, interpret, or summarize existing primary sources or original research. It provides the necessary research context, compares scholarly approaches, and is always written after the primary source.

Secondary research usually forms the starting point of any investigation. Instead of generating data from scratch, existing sources that were originally collected for other purposes are analysed.

A secondary source (often synonymous with secondary literature) is a work that analyses, interprets, or summarizes primary sources instead of providing new data or direct eyewitness accounts. It forms the basis for scholarly discourse

What should be observed? The selection of specific observation objects or the filtering out of particular stimuli.

In general, every observation is subject to a threefold selection process. This selection happens consciously and unconsciously, whether the observation is naive or systematic. It helps explain how observation becomes a scientific data collection method. The selection process consists of selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention.

Selective coding searches for a central key category. All other codes are subordinated to this main theme in order to develop a theory or core model.

In social psychology and communication studies, selective exposure refers to the human tendency to seek out information or media content that matches one’s own views while avoiding contradictory information.

In social psychology and communication studies, selective exposure refers to the human tendency to seek out information or media content that matches one’s own views while avoiding contradictory information.

Selective perception is a cognitive phenomenon in science, especially in psychology and communication studies, in which the brain selectively filters out certain information from a multitude of environmental stimuli and ignores the rest. This serves to protect against sensory overload, but is driven by personal expectations, attitudes or goals.

Selective perception is a cognitive phenomenon in science, especially in psychology and communication studies, in which the brain selectively filters out certain information from a multitude of environmental stimuli and ignores the rest. This serves to protect against sensory overload, but is driven by personal expectations, attitudes or goals.

In science, selective retention refers to the human tendency or ability to selectively retrieve certain facts, experiences or aspects from memory while others are left out or forgotten. This process is governed by psychological, neurobiological and social factors.

In science, selective retention refers to the human tendency or ability to selectively retrieve certain facts, experiences or aspects from memory while others are left out or forgotten. This process is governed by psychological, neurobiological and social factors.

Self-observation, also called introspection, is the conscious and attentive perception of one’s own thoughts, feelings, bodily reactions and behaviours. It serves for inner orientation and is used in everyday life, coaching or psychotherapy to recognise personal behavioural patterns.

see self-report method.

A self-report method is a quantitative or qualitative data collection method in which participants are asked directly about their own thoughts, feelings, attitudes or behaviours. It is used as a primary source in psychology and market research, as it is often the only way to access a person’s subjective experience. In essence, self-report is an umbrella term for all methods in which people provide information about their own behaviour, thoughts or feelings, for example in questionnaires or interviews. It is usually a one-off retrospective collection, for example at the end of an experiment or an app use session. Its focus is more on general attitudes, personality traits or the overall impression. It is used to obtain basic assessments. For example, a user later rates how satisfied they generally were with a service. Its advantage is that it is extremely inexpensive, practical and makes it possible to collect large amounts of data in a short time. For this reason, the method is often used in combination with other data collection methods. The disadvantage of self-report methods is that the data can be influenced by bias. In particular, the so-called social desirability bias leads people to adjust their answers so as to present themselves in a better light.

Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered search engine for academic literature, developed by the Allen Institute for AI. It helps researchers search millions of scholarly articles, studies, and publications, and better manage the information overload.

Semantic-content transcription focuses not only on what was said, but also on how it was said. This method is used in qualitative social research (e.g., conversation analysis) because pauses and intonation can completely alter the meaning. Every word is transcribed exactly as it is spoken – including errors, sentence fragments, and dialect words. Pauses are counted (often in seconds), intonation is marked, and laughter or sighs are noted in parentheses. There are established systems of rules for this precise transcription, such as HIAT (Semi-Interpretive Transcription) or GAT 2 (Conversation Analytic Transcription System). An example would be: “Yeah ((smiles)) well, I think that / (.) uh, is really good, isn’t it?”

see hybrid questions.

See HIAT.

In semi-structured interviews, also called guided interviews, there is a broad list of topics, that is, a guide. However, the interviewer has flexibility regarding the order and wording of the questions.

See informed consent.

Sensitive questions, or delicate questions, refer to the content of the question and its intensity, and deal with potentially uncomfortable, intimate or socially taboo topics, for example income, health or deviant behaviour.

The sequential design means that the methods are applied one after another. There are two forms of sequential design: the explanatory design and the exploratory design.

Sequentiality denotes the principle in science that processes, actions or data occur or are analysed in a successive order. In the social and language sciences it describes how linguistic utterances or social action refer to one another and unfold step by step, for example in conversation analysis or sequential interpretation.

A serif typeface, for example Times New Roman or Garamond, is a classic font with small finishing strokes at the ends of the letter forms.

In typography, serifs are the fine lines or small hook-like strokes at the ends of letter strokes. In academic writing, for example when producing typographic texts, they help the eye move along the line, which makes long printed texts easier to read.

The short citation style refers only to the bibliography. It is extremely space-efficient. It is used either directly in the text (e.g., in parentheses) or from the second mention onward in footnotes. The complete information can be found in the bibliography. The choice of method usually depends on the citation style of the university or journal. The components of a short citation are the last name, the year, and the page number.

see Short reports

In the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (CDPA), Section 30, a short quotation is the partial incorporation of a portion of a copyrighted work into a new, original work. It serves as evidence, a basis for discussion, or to illustrate one's own thoughts and is permissible under certain conditions without the author's consent. These are usually direct quotations that do not exceed the length of a sentence or a few sentences. The original meaning of the quotation must, of course, not be distorted. Short excerpts from musical pieces (motifs, melodies) can also be used as short quotations. Incorrect use, especially without embedding in one's own content, can lead to legal consequences such as a cease-and-desist letter.

Short reports are brief original research articles that present new data or observations but lack the length and depth of a full paper. Depending on the journal, they may be designated as a Short Communication, Brief Report, Research Letter, Rapid Communication, or simply a Letter. Many journals define short reports as contributions that present significant and original findings—but do not (yet) possess a sufficiently comprehensive dataset for a full-length article—or that warrant rapid publication due to their timeliness.

see Short Citation Style

Significance refers to "statistical significance." In science, market research, and medicine, the term indicates whether an observed effect, difference, or relationship is highly likely not to be mere coincidence but actually exists.

The significance level is the pre-set error probability in scientific research. It indicates how much risk is accepted of making a type 1 error, that is, wrongly assuming that an effect exists even though in reality there is no relationship or difference.

A signpost sentence (or "guidepost sentence") serves as a linguistic reference point in texts or presentations. Its purpose is to guide the audience, clarify the structure, and make the central thread of the argument visible.

In academia, simplicity is a key criterion of quality and a fundamental principle of inquiry. It dictates that, among several theories explaining a phenomenon equally well and correctly, the one requiring the fewest assumptions and possessing the simplest structure should always be preferred. Short, precise sentences and common terms. Technical terms (terminology) are permitted but must be clearly defined upon first use.

In single-choice questions, a list of answer options is provided, but only one option may be selected. The choice is therefore exclusive. If another option is clicked, the previous one is automatically deselected. Their typical uses are clear categorisations, for example sex, age group or absolute knowledge questions, such as “What is the capital of France?”.

see single-choice questions.

Empirical statements are singular if their claim to validity is limited in terms of space and time. "In Germany, 200 drivers died in accidents while under the influence of alcohol in 2011."

In science, the snowball effect in group discussions describes a self-reinforcing dynamic in which an initial prompt, such as an idea, statement or experience, triggers a chain reaction within the group. Participants’ contributions build on one another, bringing increasingly rich and deeper information, associations or opinions to the surface.

Social desirability bias refers in the sciences to the human tendency to present oneself in surveys, tests or interviews in a way that matches social norms and expectations. Instead of giving their honest opinion or actual behaviour, participants provide answers that they expect will gain social approval and avoid rejection.

The social sciences focus more on the concrete behavior of people and their social relationships with one another.

see Practical (societal / economic) relevance

Sociology, psychology, political science, and economics are examples of the societal sciences. These are also called societal sciences and examine the coexistence of people in society, as well as human behavior and structures.

Societal value in science describes the guiding principles and ethical standards that shape the actions of researchers, as well as the contribution science makes to the common good.

Socio-demographic questions, also called characterising or demographic questions, collect the objective and quantifiable characteristics of individuals or groups. They are used in surveys, market research or personnel development to understand the structure of target groups, segment them and evaluate results statistically. They are divided into basic demographic data and socio-economic and socio-cultural characteristics: age, sex, marital status and household size, educational level and training, occupational status, income, housing situation, nationality or migration background. In order for the data to be collected reliably and in compliance with data protection rules, these questions should be placed at the end of a questionnaire and always include an option such as “Prefer not to say”. If there is a risk that conclusions about a specific person could be drawn from the data, they must be declared as personal data under the GDPR.

Socio-demographic information consists of standard questions about the person used to describe the sample. They are also placed at the end of the survey, since they can sometimes be perceived as intimate. By then, the respondent has already built trust and is almost finished with the survey.

The Spearman correlation coefficient, a rank correlation coefficient, assesses the monotonic relationship based on ranks, that is, the sorted order of the data.

Libraries special institutions and special types generally fall into three categories: school libraries, virtual/digital libraries, and patient and prison libraries. The first supports students with research and promotes reading skills. Virtual/digital libraries offer access exclusively to e-books, databases, and digital media. Patient and prison libraries are smaller versions for direct use in hospitals or correctional facilities.

see Scientific journal articles

see Expert interview.

Specialized libraries focus thematically on very specific subject areas or industries. Examples include government, company, and museum libraries, or archives of associations. For example, in Germany there is a German Waste Management Library, an Agricultural History Library, the German Esperanto Library, and the Central Natural History Library.

The split-half method (also known as split-half reliability) is a statistical procedure in empirical research used to verify the reliability of a test or questionnaire. It measures the internal consistency of the questions or tasks.

see Split-half method

The standard deviation is the square root of the variance and corresponds to the original unit of measurement of the data. It is mainly used for concrete interpretation.

Through the standard pre-test, the questionnaire is tested exactly as it will later be used in the main study. It provides data on dropout rate, response distribution and completion time.

see structured interview.

In science and research, the STAR method is not an original scientific paradigm, but a structural framework. It is used mainly in recruitment processes for academic positions, for example postdoctoral posts or professorships, or in the writing of research reports and behavioural assessments, in order to demonstrate scientific and problem-solving competencies precisely. The letters stand for four successive phases used to describe experiences or projects: Situation, Task, Action and Result.

State and regional libraries, on the other hand, collect the literature of a specific federal state or country and serve as archives. Historically, there are also state libraries whose respective states no longer have legal status, e.g., the Baden State Library, the Württemberg State Library, or the Oldenburg State Library.

A statistical hypothesis is a proposition that one wishes to test. In statistics, one often formulates a hypothesis and its antithesis, i.e. a counter-statement, in order to then test them statistically for their truth. Simple statements such as ‘Women are more creative than men’ may suffice, depending on the available data set.

see Regulation

In science, the stimulus word method (also stimulus word analysis) serves as a creativity technique to break through thought patterns. It promotes Originality is achieved by triggering new associations through random terms (stimulus words). This leads to innovative research questions and interdisciplinary solutions based on logic which would often have remained hidden along the way.

Storage limitation requires that collected data be stored only for the specified period. At the latest, the data must be deleted as soon as the data subject requests its erasure (right to be forgotten).

Straightliners are participants who tick the same answers throughout.

A straw man argument (or straw man fallacy) is a rhetorical tactic in which an opponent's position is intentionally misrepresented, exaggerated, or oversimplified to make it easier to refute. The actual, original scientific standpoint is ignored in the process.

see Straw man argument

In science, stringency describes the methodological, logical, and formal coherence of an investigation or argument. A rigorous research process is seamless, comprehensible, consistently structured, and leaves no room for contradictions or impermissible leaps in logic.

Structural sciences (coined by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker) are disciplines that do not deal with material nature or concrete social content. Instead, they investigate abstract forms, logical systems, methods, and the internal structure of phenomena. They are closely related to the formal sciences.

A clear, logical, and consistent thread of thought. Paragraphs, subheadings, and lists are used to structure the text both visually and in terms of content

Structure-confirming procedures investigate the influence of one or more independent variables on one or more dependent variables, for example in order to produce predictions. They use multiple regression, logistic regression or the so-called MANOVA.

Structure-discovering procedures, also called interdependent methods, examine the relationships between all variables on an equal footing, without a fixed before-and-after direction. They use factor analysis or cluster analysis.

In a structured, also standardised, interview, the questions and their order are fixed exactly in advance and are asked of every interviewee in exactly the same way. This applies, for example, to certain surveys or standardised job interviews.

see systematic observation

see Protocol paper

Language is flexible. Different translators use different words for the same meaning, thereby showing stylistic differences. Even a correct translation will almost never produce exactly the same wording as the original when it is translated back.

Subjectivity describes a person’s personal perspective, shaped by individual feelings, experiences and opinions. It stands in contrast to objectivity, which describes things in a value-free manner and independently of the observer.

Publication readiness (or suitability for publication) describes the state of a work in which it meets all professional, formal, and legal requirements for official publication. This is particularly relevant in scientific and academic contexts.

Suitability regarding content is ensured when the research question is sufficiently clear, relevant, and original. It should justify the interest of the specialist community and align with the journal’s scope. The latter implies that the work is compatible with the field in terms of both content and methodology.

A summary (or synopsis) is a concise, factual overview of a text, book, film, or lecture. It succinctly presents the most important plot points, core ideas, and characters without including personal opinions. A summary can be used as an additional list before the table of contents, with a maximum of three levels of headings, or as a textual summary. It is particularly useful for very extensive academic works such as dissertations.

Supranational denotes organisations to which nation states have ceded part of their sovereignty, such as the European Union.

see quantitative survey.

Survey forms can be administered in writing, online, by telephone or in the context of face-to-face interviews. Written and online surveys can gather responses from a relatively large number of respondents, no interviewer is needed, and the respondent can take the time they need to answer. In online surveys, the questionnaire is sent via platforms or by link. This is the cheapest and fastest method, with wide reach. A typical questionnaire follows the so-called funnel principle: it starts simply and innocuously, develops logically by topic and ends with personal details. The structure is meant to motivate participants, avoid cognitive overload and guide them through to completion. To do this, it is helpful first to establish one’s own design criteria and guidelines. It should motivate participants to take part, but not influence them. Like a good book, a questionnaire must build suspense. It is important not to overwhelm the respondent at the start. One begins with questions that lead into the research question. This prepares the respondent for the main research question. At this point, close attention must be paid to the halo effect and the order effect, which should be considered and kept as small as possible. The questionnaire follows a fixed, logical sequence in order to ensure the comparability of the data for all participants.

A symbol is a concrete sign, image, or emblem that represents an abstract idea, concept, or semantic relationship. It refers beyond its literal meaning and usually has to be learned through cultural agreement.

Synektik (Bildtechnik) Sinectica (Técnica de la imagen)

see Abstract

see Summary of contents

In science, observation is also called systematic observation and is intended to serve as a data collection method. Systematic observation is a scientific method of empirical research in which behaviour, processes or objects are recorded in a planned, theory-driven manner and according to strict rules defined in advance. It differs from everyday observation through its methodological rigour, in order to ensure objectivity, reliability and scientific traceability.

A systematic review is a distinct scientific method in which all available studies addressing a specific research question are searched for, evaluated, and summarized according to a transparent, pre-defined plan. The aim is to minimize bias and provide an objective answer to the research question.

A systematic review is a distinct scientific method in which all available studies addressing a specific research question are searched for, evaluated, and summarized according to a transparent, pre-defined plan. The aim is to minimize bias and provide an objective answer to the research question.

Systematic-analytical methods in the Science refers to a structured, rule-based approach in which complex phenomena are broken down into their individual components (analysed) and logically investigated. The goal is to identify causes, structures, and regularities objectively, comprehensibly, and without error.

The bringing together of individual observations, coded with signs, numbers or terms, into a clear overall record.

see Categorization

The t-test is a statistical hypothesis testing procedure used in science to check whether the means of at most two groups differ statistically significantly or whether they differ only by chance.

See thematic analysis.

The table of contents is the calling card of the work and visualizes the logical structure and weighting of the individual chapters. It immediately shows the examiner whether the scholarly guideline (introduction → main body → conclusion) has been implemented in a structured manner. It is a structured listing of the chapters, subchapters, and appendices of a document, supplemented by the respective page number. It is usually located at the beginning of a text and reflects its logical organization. The table of contents provides readers with a concise overview of the logical structure, topics, and scope of the work. It also serves as a guide, allowing readers to directly access specific sections, chapters, or bibliographies without having to search the entire document. For the author, a table of contents makes their own line of reasoning transparent. It helps identify key themes and uncover logical gaps in the argument.

see think aloud.

See dependent variable.

See dependent variable.

Tautological statements are analytically true propositions. If the rooster crows on the manure pile, the weather will change, or it will stay the same for a while.

Terminology refers to the totality of all technical terms and definitions used in a specific science or specialized discipline. It is the precise, controlled vocabulary used by experts.

In science, the test-retest method (also known as test repetition) is used to verify the reliability of a measurement instrument, such as a questionnaire, a test, or a medical device. This involves performing the exact same measurement on the same test group at two different points in time. Subsequently, the relationship (correlation) between the results from both time points is calculated statistically.

Thematic analysis, also called Thematic Analysis or TA, according to Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, is one of the most widely used qualitative research methods worldwide. Its main aim is to identify, analyse and present patterns, meanings and concepts, that is, themes, in qualitative data such as interviews, focus groups or texts. The great advantage of this approach is its enormous flexibility: the method is not tied to any specific theoretical orientation, such as pure grounded theory, and can be applied inductively, from the data, or deductively, from existing theories.

Thematic analysis, also called Thematic Analysis or TA, according to Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke, is one of the most widely used qualitative research methods worldwide. Its main aim is to identify, analyse and present patterns, meanings and concepts, that is, themes, in qualitative data such as interviews, focus groups or texts. The great advantage of this approach is its enormous flexibility: the method is not tied to any specific theoretical orientation, such as pure grounded theory, and can be applied inductively, from the data, or deductively, from existing theories.

Thematic codes, also called themes, are broader units of meaning that interpret larger sections of text. They group several smaller codes into a coherent narrative strand or pattern, for example “work-life balance”.

See thematic codes.

In a theoretical analysis, one remains within the realm of logic and existing models. Established theories are used to draw new conclusions or examine problems in depth. The work involves definitions, logical chains of reasoning, and mathematical formulas.

A theoretical article addresses a phenomenon, an idea, or a scientific question at a conceptual level. The focus is not on analyzing one's own sample, but rather on how a topic can be defined with conceptual precision, structured logically, or better explained theoretically.

A theoretical article addresses a phenomenon, an idea, or a scientific question at a conceptual level. The focus is not on analyzing one's own sample, but rather on how a topic can be defined with conceptual precision, structured logically, or better explained theoretically.

see Scientific (theoretical) relevance

Theoretical sampling is a dynamic, iterative procedure in qualitative research, especially in the grounded theory methodology, whereby the selection of new data sources, such as people, events or documents, is based on the insights already gained in the ongoing analysis process.

Theoretical saturation is a central stopping criterion in qualitative research. It describes the point in the research process at which collecting further data, for example through interviews or observations, no longer yields new insights, variations or relationships, but only repetitions.

In the scientific sense, a theory is not a ‘vague idea’, but a structure of thought. It consists of logically linked statements that attempt to explain or predict a part of reality. One could say, therefore, that a theory is an accumulation of statements. Theories are neither definitively proven – otherwise they would be laws – nor definitively falsified. Colloquially, one might say that a theory is the ‘battle plan’ or the model in one’s mind. It is important that theories must always be testable. If this is not the case, it is not a theory.

A thesis means an assumption, assertion, guiding principle, core statement, position or postulate.

Think aloud, also called think-aloud, the think-aloud method or a talk-aloud interview, is a qualitative research method in which participants are asked to verbalise their thoughts, feelings and intended actions in real time while solving a task. The procedure is used to make otherwise invisible cognitive processes and problem-solving paths directly and empirically observable. It is based on the informal interview.

Think-Aloud Think-Aloud

see think aloud.

The think-aloud pre-test is a procedure carried out before a survey or study in which participants verbalise their thoughts aloud while solving tasks or answering questions. This makes it possible to check whether they understand the questions correctly, what mental processes they follow and at which points difficulties arise.

Time sampling is a quantitative observation method in empirical research. Instead of recording behaviour continuously, the observation period is divided into fixed, regular intervals, for example every 20 seconds for 5 seconds. Only within these defined time windows is the occurrence of the pre-specified behaviours recorded.

Time sampling is a quantitative observation method in empirical research. Instead of recording behaviour continuously, the observation period is divided into fixed, regular intervals, for example every 20 seconds for 5 seconds. Only within these defined time windows is the occurrence of the pre-specified behaviours recorded.

see time sampling.

In general, to code means grouping content around a theme. See also coding.

to quote indirectly (see indirect quotation).

The upper white, unprinted margin.

Transcription is the systematic conversion of spoken language into written text, whether from audio or video. It serves to record oral statements so that they can be searched, quoted or analysed more easily. It can be done with software or manually. Depending on the purpose, several forms are distinguished; the three basic ones are literal transcription, phonetic transcription and semantic-content transcription.

see Lawfulness and Transparency

Scientific transparency means that the entire research process—from planning to publication—is fully comprehensible, open, and verifiable for other researchers and the public. It is a core principle of good scientific practice.

Through trend detection, changes, habit formation or emotional developments can be tracked over time. This is an advantage in long-term data collection.

The triangulation design, also called parallel or convergent design, consists of collecting qualitative and quantitative data at the same time. These are combined in order to illuminate a phenomenon from different perspectives. For this reason, the data are collected, analysed and documented simultaneously. Integration means comparing them, relating them to one another or checking their validity. The final interpretation treats qualitative and quantitative data as equally important.

The exchange of turns, that is, the fact that in conversation speakers naturally alternate.

In a type 1 error, an effect is wrongly assumed to exist even though it does not exist in reality.

In a type 2 error, also called a beta error, a real effect is overlooked.

Schrift refers to the general design and idea behind a typeface.

The aim of type-building content analysis is to identify certain types or patterns of people or behaviours in the data material.

see Font

In science, the term “uncritical topics”, in the context of omitting a pre-test, refers to standardised, long-established or factual subject matter. When questions or topic areas in a questionnaire are classified as uncritical, this means that no comprehension difficulties, methodological errors or response distortions, for example due to social desirability, are expected.

see URL

A univariate analysis is a statistical procedure that examines the distribution and characteristics of a single variable in isolation. Its aim is to present the data clearly and identify basic patterns without looking for relationships with other variables. In practice, it often serves as the first step in data checking. It includes frequency distributions and measures of central tendency and dispersion. Research questions that extend beyond a single variable (e.g., "Is there a relationship between gender and salary?") are subsequently investigated using bivariate or multivariate analysis methods. Univariate analysis includes frequency distributions, measures of central tendency, and measures of dispersion.

See univariate analysis.

The task of university and college libraries is to provide the respective faculties with specialist literature.

In an unstructured, or unsystematic, observation, events are documented openly and flexibly, without predetermined categories, tally lists or rigid observation sheets. The focus is on capturing behaviour in a situation as holistically and impartially as possible.

Unsupervised learning is a branch of machine learning. Algorithms receive unlabelled raw data without predefined target values or correct answers. They must independently discover and organise hidden structures, similarities and patterns in the data.

see unstructured observation.

A URL, Uniform Resource Locator, is the exact internet address of a web page, comparable to a postal address. It indicates where a file or document is located on the internet. If the storage location changes, the URL no longer works. A URL is used to access websites in a browser. In academic papers, it is usually only used when no DOI is available.

In academic writing, it is recommended to use neutral reporting verbs to introduce an indirect quotation or paraphrase (e.g., ‘The author states that...’ or ‘According to the study...’). This clearly indicates that the statement belongs to another source. Reporting verbs are the primary grammatical tool for reported speech. In scholarly work, they allow writers to maintain a neutral distance from external claims. By doing so, you demonstrate that you are merely presenting an assertion or source without assuming responsibility for the absolute truth of the statement.

In valence analysis, as part of content analysis, not only the pure frequencies matter, but also the content-based evaluations of the categories. The coding scheme must therefore take into account whether the statements express a certain positive or negative tendency, or whether they are neutral. A valence analysis also checks whether a valuation of the topic is expressed in the counting unit, for example a sentence.

Validated instruments are standardised measurement methods, such as scales or questionnaires, whose scientific quality criteria, such as validity and reliability, have already been extensively demonstrated in previous studies. For this reason, in current research a pre-test to check measurement accuracy is often no longer strictly necessary.

Validity refers to the soundness or accuracy of a measure; it indicates whether a scientific study or measurement tool (such as a questionnaire) actually measures or examines exactly what it is intended to measure. For example, if the goal is to measure intelligence but the test ultimately only assesses arithmetic ability, the test is not valid.

The Vancouver citation style is a numerical system commonly used in medical fields. Sources in the text are marked by numbers in round, square, or superscript brackets, in the order in which they first appear. In the reference list, these sources are then given in full, also numbered.

See measures of dispersion.

In science, a variable is a characteristic, property, or measurement that is changeable and can take on different values. It is the fundamental object of study in research, used to collect data, analyse relationships, and test hypotheses.

The variance gives the squared average distance of the data from the mean. It is mainly used as a calculation quantity for interpreting the standard deviation.

see Visual analogue scales

see Direct quotation

Verbosity refers to the excessive use of words and details that are not essential to the core message. In academic writing, it impairs readability, obscures the structure of the argument, and leads to information overload.

A vertical behavioural analysis, also called macroanalysis, is an interview format grounded in psychodynamic and learning theory. It captures cross-situational goals, plans, cognitions and biographical learning experiences that underlie the concrete problem behaviour, rather than looking only at triggering moments in the here and now. It is based on the standardised interview.

Eine vertikale Verhaltensanalyse (auch Makroanalyse) ist ein tiefenpsychologisches und lerntheoretisches Interviewformat. Sie erfasst situationsübergreifende Ziele, Pläne, Kognitionen und biografische Lernerfahrungen, die dem konkreten Problemverhalten zugrunde liegen, anstatt nur auslösende Momente im Hier und Jetzt zu betrachten. Es basiert auf dem standardisierten Interview.

A VHB ranking (often officially referred to as a VHB rating) is a list compiled by the *Verband der Hochschullehrer für Betriebswirtschaft* (VHB)—the Association of University Professors of Business Administration—that evaluates the academic quality of journals and publication outlets in the field of business administration. It serves as the primary benchmark for the publication performance of business administration researchers in German-speaking countries.

Virtual libraries are specialized web portals or subject-specific information guides. They do not host their own publications on their servers, but rather collect, structure, and annotate links to information sources across the internet. They function as guides (catalogues) to facilitate users' targeted searches for high-quality, subject-specific information.

A visual analogue scale, VAS, is a psychometric measurement instrument used to capture subjective sensations that cannot be measured directly, such as pain, itching or quality of life. It usually consists of a 10 cm line whose endpoints mark extreme states, for example “no pain” and “worst imaginable pain”, on which participants indicate the intensity they perceive.

A web page is a single document or subpage within a website. The website is the book, and the web page is one page in that book. It is usually a single HTML file displayed in the browser.

A website is the entire web presence, that is, the collection of all pages under one domain. The front page of a website is called the homepage. In other words, the website comprises the whole web offering, for example www.example.co.uk.

In this context, the WEIRD bias must also be mentioned as an important concept. A large share of our psychological and social studies is based on participants who are Western, educated, industrialised, rich and democratic, which is not representative of the rest of the world.

In academia, a white paper is a well-founded, objective report that summarises complex research findings or technological standards concisely. It serves as a bridge between basic research and practical application, showing workable solutions, and is usually freely available.

see Forest plot

In written surveys, the questionnaire is traditionally sent by post, for example as a paper questionnaire. Respondents complete it on their own and return it.

The term “yes-man data” (or “yes-man syndrome” in relation to algorithms) refers in science to the phenomenon that language models and AI applications are conditioned to strongly agree with users’ views, perceptions, or delusional ideas in order to appear friendly and supportive.

See response tendencies.

Bei der zufälligen Auswahl, auch Zufallsstichprobe oder Randomisierung genannt, hat jede Person der Zielgruppe die exakt gleiche und berechenbare Chance, ausgewählt zu werden. Dies ist der Fall, wenn eine Software aus dem Einwohnermeldeamt per Zufallsgenerator 500 Personen für eine Umfrage zieht.